UNIT 6: SUBSTATIONS

Prepared by:
Er. Madhav P. Nagarkoti
(Visiting Faculty)
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CONTENTS
 Introduction
 Necessity of substations

 Substation layouts

 Grid substations and distribution substations

 Major equipment at substations

 Selection of transformers based on applications

 Fault limiting reactors

 Circuit breakers, isolators, Lighting arrestors and other

accessories
 Bus bar arrangement

 Communication system
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 Switching stations
INTRODUCTION
 The assembly of apparatus used to change some
characteristic (e.g. voltage, a.c. to d.c., frequency, etc.) of
electric supply is called a sub-station.
 Sub-stations are important part of power system. The
continuity of supply depends to a considerable extent upon
the successful operation of sub-stations.
 It is, therefore, essential to exercise utmost care while
designing and building a sub-station. The following are the
important points which must be kept in view while laying out
a sub-station :
a. It should be located at a proper site.
b. It should provide safe and reliable arrangement.
c. It should be easily operated and maintained.
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d. It should involve minimum capital cost.
NECESSITY OF SUBSTATIONS
 Practical Considerations
a. To satisfy load growth
b. To accommodate new generation
c. To maintain reliability requirements

 Technical Considerations
a. To step up or step down AC voltage using transformer
b. To switch the power lines
c. To correct the power factor
d. To change the frequency
e. To convert ac power into dc power
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SUBSTATION LAYOUTS

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TYPICAL SUBSTATION SINGLE LINE DIAGRAM

GRID SUBSTATIONS
  The word grid means combination. Combination or
interconnection of various power system elements such as
generating stations, transmission lines, distribution lines etc.
 Power Grid Station is an interconnection point between two
transmission line circuits (Rings), those are
serving/connecting two geographic regions.
 Power Grid Station has transformer depending on the
possibly different voltages, so that the voltage levels can be
adjusted as needed.

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DISTRIBUTION SUBSTATION
 The electric power from 11 kV lines is delivered to
distribution sub-stations.
 These sub-stations are located near the consumers localities
and step down the voltage to 400 V, 3-phase, 4-wire for
supplying to the consumers.
 The voltage between any two phases is 400V and between
any phase and neutral it is 230 V.
 The single phase residential lighting load is connected
between any one phase and neutral whereas 3-phase, 400V
motor load is connected across 3-phase lines directly.
 It may be worthwhile to mention here that majority of the
distribution sub- stations are of pole-mounted type.
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MAJOR EQUIPMENT AT SUBSTATIONS
 Instrument transformer
 Current transformer

 Potential transformer

 Isolators

 Bus-bars

 Lighting arrestors

 Circuit breakers

 Capacitor Banks

 Power transformers

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SYMBOLS FOR EQUIPMENTS IN SUBSTATION

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BUS- BAR ARRANGEMENT
 Bus-bars are the important components in a sub-station. There
are several bus-bar arrangements that can be used in a sub-
station.
 The choice of a particular arrangement depends upon various
factors such as system voltage, position of sub-station, degree
of reliability, cost etc.
 The following are the important bus-bar arrangements used in
sub-stations :
a. Single bus-bar system
b. Single bus-bar system with sectionalisation
c. Duplicate bus-bar system

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SINGLE BUS-BAR SYSTEM

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 As the name suggests, it consists of a single bus-bar and
all the incoming and outgoing lines are connected to it.
 The chief advantages of this type of arrangement are low
initial cost, less maintenance and simple operation.
 However, the principal disadvantage of single bus-bar
system is that if repair is to be done on the bus-bar or a
fault occurs on the bus, there is a complete interruption of
the supply.
 This arrangement is not used for voltages exceeding 33kV.

 The indoor 11kV sub-stations often use single bus-bar

arrangement.
 Above figure shows single bus-bar arrangement in a sub-
station. There are two 11 kV incoming lines connected to
the bus-bar through circuit breakers and isolators. The two
400V outgoing lines are connected to the bus bars through 15

transformers (11kV/400 V) and circuit breakers.

SINGLE BUS-BAR SYSTEM WITH SECTIONALISATION

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 In this arrangement, the single bus-bar is divided into sections
and load is equally distributed on all the sections. Any two
sections of the bus- bar are connected by a circuit breaker and
isolators.
 Two principal advantages are claimed for this arrangement.
Firstly, if a fault occurs on any section of the bus, that section
can be isolated without affecting the supply from other sections.
Secondly, repairs and maintenance of any section of the bus- bar
can be carried out by de-energising that section only, eliminating
the possibility of complete shut down. This arrangement is used
for voltages upto 33 kV.
 Above figure shows bus-bar with sectionalisation where the bus
has been divided into two sections. There are two 33 kV
incoming lines connected to sections I and II as shown through
circuit breaker and isolators. Each 11 kV outgoing line is
connected to one section through transformer (33/11 kV) and 17
circuit breaker. It is easy to see that each bus-section behaves as
a separate bus-bar.
DUPLICATE BUS-BAR SYSTEM

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 This system consists of two bus-bars, a “main” bus-bar and a
“spare” bus-bar. Each bus-bar has the capacity to take up the
entire substation load.
 The incoming and outgoing lines can be connected to either bus-
bar with the help of a bus-bar coupler which consists of a circuit
breaker and isolators.
 Ordinarily, the incoming and outgoing lines remain connected to
the main bus-bar. However, in case of repair of main bus-bar or
fault occuring on it, the continuity of supply to the circuit can be
maintained by transferring it to the spare bus-bar.
 For voltages exceeding 33kV, duplicate bus-bar system is
frequently used.
 Above figure shows the arrangement of duplicate bus-bar
system in a typical sub-station. The two 66kV incoming lines
can be connected to either bus-bar by a bus-bar coupler. The two
11 kV outgoing lines are connected to the bus-bars through 19

transformers (66/11 kV) and circuit breakers.

LIGHTINING PHENOMENON
An
 electric discharge between cloud and earth,
between clouds or between the charge centres of the
same cloud is known as lightning.
Lightning is a huge spark and takes place when

clouds are charged to such a high potential (+ve or
-ve) with respect to earth or a neighbouring cloud
that the dielectric strength of neighbouring medium
(air) is destroyed.
There are several theories which exist to explain how

the clouds acquire charge. The most accepted one is
that during the uprush of warm moist air from earth,
the friction between the air and the tiny particles of
water causes the building up of charges. 20
 When drops of water are formed, the larger drops become
positively charged and the smaller drops become negatively
charged. When the drops of water accumulate, they form
clouds, and hence cloud may possess either a positive or a
negative charge, depending upon the charge of drops of
water they contain.
 The charge on a cloud may become so great that it may
discharge to another cloud or to earth and we call this
discharge as lightning.
 The thunder which accompanies lightning is due to the fact
that lightning suddenly heats up the air, thereby causing it
to expand. The surrounding air pushes the expanded air
back and forth causing the wave motion of air which we
recognise as thunder.
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TYPES OF LIGHTING ARRESTOR
 The earthing screen and ground wires can well protect the
electrical system against direct lightning strokes but they fail
to provide protection against travelling waves which may
reach the terminal apparatus. The lightning arresters or surge
diverters provide protection against such surges.
 A lightning arrester or a surge diverter is a protective
device which conducts the high voltage surges on the power
system to the ground.
 We shall discuss the following types of lightning arresters :

1. Rod gap arrester

2. Horn gap arrester
3. Multi-gap arrester
4. Expulsion type lightning arrester
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5. Valve type lightning arrester
1. ROD GAP ARRESTER

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 It is a very simple type of diverter and consists of two 1·5 cm
rods which are bent at right angles with a gap in between as
shown in figure above.
 One rod is connected to the line circuit and the other rod is
connected to earth. The distance between gap and insulator
(i.e. distance P) must not be less than one-third of the gap
length so that the arc may not reach the insulator and damage
it.
 Generally, the gap length is so adjusted that breakdown
should occur at 80% of spark- over voltage in order to avoid
cascading of very steep wave fronts across the insulators.
 The string of insulators for an overhead line on the bushing of
transformer has frequently a rod gap across it. Above figure
shows the rod gap across the bushing of a transformer.
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 Under normal operating conditions, the gap remains non-
conducting. On the occurrence of a high voltage surge on
the line, the gap sparks over and the surge current is
conducted to earth. In this way, excess charge on the line
due to the surge is harmlessly conducted to earth.
 Limitations
 After the surge is over, the arc in the gap is maintained
by the normal supply voltage, leading to a short-circuit
on the system.
 The rods may melt or get damaged due to excessive heat
produced by the arc.
 The climatic conditions (e.g. rain, humidity, temperature
etc.) affect the performance of rod gap arrester.
 The polarity of the surge also affects the performance of
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this arrester.
2. HORN GAP ARRESTER

Above figure shows the horn gap arrester. It consists of two horn
shaped metal rods A and B separated by a small air gap. The
horns are so constructed that distance between them gradually
increases towards the top as shown.
The horns are mounted on porcelain insulators. One end of horn

is connected to the line through a resistance R and choke coil L

while the other end is effectively grounded. The resistance R 26
helps in limiting the follow current to a small value.
 The choke coil is so designed that it offers small reactance at
normal power frequency but a very high reactance at transient
frequency.
 Thus the choke does not allow the transients to enter the apparatus
to be protected.
 The gap between the horns is so adjusted that normal supply
voltage is not enough to cause an arc across the gap.
 Under normal conditions, the gap is non-conducting i.e. normal
supply voltage is insufficient to initiate the arc between the gap.
On the occurrence of an overvoltage, spark-over takes place across
the small gap G.
 The heated air around the arc and the magnetic effect of the arc
cause the arc to travel up the gap.
 The arc moves progressively into positions 1, 2 and 3. At some
position of the arc (perhaps position 3), the distance may be too
great for the voltage to maintain the arc. 27
 Consequently, the arc is extinguished. The excess charge on the
line is thus conducted through the arrester to the ground.
Advantages
 The arc is self-clearing. Therefore, this type of arrester does
not cause short-circuiting of the system after the surge is over
as in the case of rod gap.
 Series resistance helps in limiting the follow current to a
small value.

Limitations
 The bridging of gap by some external agency (e.g. birds) can
render the device useless.
 The setting of horn gap is likely to change due to corrosion or
pitting. This adversely affects the performance of the arrester.
 The time of operation is comparatively long, say about 3
seconds. In view of the very short operating time of modern
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protective gear for feeders, this time is far long.
3. MULTI-GAP ARRESTER

 Above figure shows the multigap arrester. It consists of a series of

metallic (generally alloy of zinc) cylinders insulated from one
another and separated by small intervals of air gaps.
 The first cylinder (i.e. A ) in the series is connected to the line and
the other to the ground through a series resistance.
 The series resistance limits the power arc. By the inclusion of series
resistance, the degree of protection against travelling waves is
reduced.
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 In order to overcome this difficulty, some of the gaps (B to C in
above figure are shunted by a resistance.
 Under normal conditions, the point B is at earth potential
and the normal supply voltage is unable to break down the
series gaps.
 On the occurrence of an overvoltage, the breakdown of
series gaps A to B occurs. The heavy current after
breakdown will choose the straight - through path to earth
via the shunted gaps B and C, instead of the alternative path
through the shunt resistance.
 When the surge is over, the arcs B to C go out and any
power current following the surge is limited by the two
resistances (shunt resistance and series resistance) which are
now in series.
 The current is too small to maintain the arcs in the gaps A to
B and normal conditions are restored. Such arresters can be
employed where system voltage does not exceed 33 kV. 30
4. EXPULSION TYPE LIGHTNING ARRESTER

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 This type of arrester is also called ‘protector tube’ and is
commonly used on system operating at voltages upto 33 kV.

 Fig. (i) shows the essential parts of an expulsion type

lightning arrester. It essentially consists of a rod gap A A’ in
series with a second gap enclosed within the fibre tube.
 The gap in the fibre tube is formed by two electrodes. The
upper electrode is connected to rod gap and the lower
electrode to the earth. One expulsion arrester is placed
under each line conductor. Fig. (ii) shows the installation of
expulsion arrester on an overhead line.
 On the occurrence of an overvoltage on the line, the series
gap A A’ is spanned and an arc is struck between the
electrodes in the tube.
 The heat of the arc vaporises some of the fibre of tube 32

walls, resulting in the production of a neutral gas.

 In an extremely short time, the gas builds up high pressure and is expelled
through the lower electrode which is hollow.
 As the gas leaves the tube violently, it carries away ionised air around the
arc. This de-ionising effect is generally so strong that arc goes out at a
current zero and will not be re-established.
Advantages
 They are not very expensive.

 They are improved form of rod gap arresters as they block the flow of
power frequency follow currents.
 They can be easily installed.

Limitations
 An expulsion type arrester can perform only limited number of operations
as during each operation some of the fibre material is used up.
 This type of arrester cannot be mounted in an enclosed equipment due to
the discharge of gases during operation.
 Due to the poor volt/amp characteristic of the arrester, it is not suitable for 33
the protection of expensive equipment.
5. VALVE TYPE LIGHTNING ARRESTER

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 Valve type arresters incorporate non-linear resistors and are
exten- sively used on systems operating at high voltages.
 Fig. (i) shows the various parts of a valve type arrester. It
consists of two assemblies (i) series spark gaps and (ii) non-
linear resistor discs (made of material such as thyrite or
metrosil) in series.
 The non-linear elements are connected in series with the
spark gaps. Both the assemblies are accommodated in tight
porcelain container.
 Under normal conditions, the normal system voltage is
insufficient to cause the break- down of air gap assembly.
On the occurrence of an overvoltage, the breakdown of the
series spark gap takes place and the surge current is
conducted to earth via the non-linear resistors.
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 Since the magnitude of surge current is very large, the non-linear elements
will offer a very low resistance to the passage of surge.
 The result is that the surge will rapidly go to earth instead of being sent
back over the line. When the surge is over, the non-linear resistors assume
high resistance to stop the flow of current.
Advantages
 They provide very effective protection (especially for transformers and
cables) against surges.
 They operate very rapidly taking less than a second.

 The impulse ratio is practically unity.

Limitations
 They may fail to check the surges of very steep wave front from reaching
the terminal apparatus. This calls for additional steps to check steep-
fronted waves.
 Their performance is adversely affected by the entry of moisture into the
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enclosure. This necessitates effective sealing of the enclosure at all times.
FAULT LIMITING REACTORS
 A reactor is a coil of number of turns designed to have a large
inductance as compared to its Ohmic resistance.
 The forces on the turns of these reactors under short-circuit conditions
are considerable and, therefore, the windings must be solidly braced.
 It may be added that due to very small resistance of reactors, there is
very little change in the efficiency of the system.
 Advantages
Reactors limit the flow of short-circuit current and thus protect the

equipment from over- heating as well as from failure due to

destructive mechanical forces.
Troubles are localised or isolated at the point where they originate

without communicating their disturbing effects to other parts of

the power system. This increases the chances of continuity of
supply.
They permit the installation of circuit breakers of lower rating.
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TYPES OF REACTOR
 Generator reactors
 Feeder reactors

 Bus-bar reactors

Generator Reactor
 When the reactors are

connected in series with

each generator, they are
known as generator
reactors (see Fig. 17.4). In this case, the reactor may be
considered as a part of leak- age reactance of the generator ;
hence its effect is to protect the generator in the case of any 38
short-circuit beyond the reactors.
Feeder reactors
 When the reactors are
connected in series with
each feeder, they are known
as feeder reactors. Since most
of the short-circuits occur on
feeders, a large number
of reactors are used for such circuits.
 Two principal advantages are claimed for feeder reactors.
Firstly, if a fault occurs on any feeder, the voltage drop in its
reactor will not affect the bus-bars volt- age so that there is a
little tendency for the genera- tor to lose synchronism.
Secondly, the fault on a feeder will not affect other feeders
and consequently the effects of fault are localised. 39
Bus-bar reactors
 The above two methods of locating reactors suffer from the
disadvantage that there is considerable voltage drop and power
loss in the reactors even during normal operation.
 This disadvantage can be overcome by locating the reactors in
the bus-bars. There are two methods for this purpose, namely ;
1. Ring system
2. Tie-Bar system

1. Ring system
 In this system, bus-bar

is divided into sections

and these sections are
connected through reactors
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as shown in Fig.
 Generally, one feeder is fed from one generator only. Under
normal operating conditions, each generator will supply its
own section of the load and very little power will be fed by
other generators.
 This results in low power loss and voltage drop in the
reactors.
 However, the principal advantage of the system is that if a
fault occurs on any feeder, only one genera- tor (to which
the particular feeder is connected) mainly feeds the fault
current while the current fed from other generators is small
due to the presence of reactors.
 Therefore, only that section of bus-bar is affected to which
the feeder is connected, the other sections being able to
continue in normal operation.
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2. Tie-Bar system
 Above figure shows the

tie-bar system. Comparing

the ring system with tie-bar
system, it is clear that in the
tie-bar system, there are
effectively two reactors in
series between sections so that reactors must have
approximately half the reactance of those used in a
comparable ring system.
 Another advantage of tie- bar system is that additional
generators may be connected to the system without requiring
changes in the existing reactors.
 However, this system has the disadvantage that it requires an
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additional bus-bar i.e. the tie-bar.
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