1

INTRODUCTION

The economics of generation of electrical energy and the huge demands for power
in the modern times requires creation of bigger power substation.
The power stations may be far from the load center/consumers and so long high
voltage transmission lines are necessary for tranfer of bulk power transfer.
Switching station and transformers are installed in between generation and
distribution.

SUBSTATION :

A substation is a part of an electrical generation, transmission and

distribution system. Substations transform voltage from high to low ,or vice-
versa or perform several other important functions. Electric power may flow
through several substations between generating plant and voltage may
change in several steps.
A substation that has a step-up transformer increases the voltage while
decreasing the current, while a step-down transformer decreases the voltage
while increasing the current for domestic and commercial distribution. Initially,
the first substations were connected to only one power station, where the
generators were housed and were subsidiaries of that power station.
Following are the important points which much be kept in view while laying
out a substation-
1. Location of substation should be at proper sight. As far as possible, it may
be located at the centre of the gravity of the load.
2. It should provide safe and reliable arrangement for reliability; consideration
should be given for good design and construction, provision of suitable
protective gear, etc.
3. It should be easily operated and maintained &handled.
4. It should have involve minimum capital.

Classifications of Substations
The substations may be classified in numerous ways, such as on the basis
of nature of duties, service rendered, operating voltage, importance, and
design.

Nature of Duties
Step-up or Primary Substations The generating voltage of
such type of substations is usually 3.3, 6.6, 11 or 33 KV. This
generating voltage is usually stepped up to primary transmission
voltage so that the large bulk of power can be transmitted. Such
types of substations are usually associated with generating
substations.
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Primary Grid Substations In these substations, the primary

transmission voltage is stepped down to different suitable
secondary voltage. The secondary transmission lines are drifted
over to the secondary substations situated at the load center
where the voltage is more stepped down to sub-transmission or
primary distribution voltage.
Step-down or Distribution Substations Such type of
transmission is located at the load center, where the primary
distribution voltage is stepped down to secondary distribution
voltage. This substation feeds the consumers through
distribution networks and service lines.
Basis of Operating Voltage
The substations, according to operating voltage, may be categorised
as
High Voltage Substations (HV Substations) Involving
voltages between 11KV and 66 KV.
Extra High Voltage Substations Involving voltages between
132 kV and 400 KV.
Ultra High Voltage Operating voltage above 400 KV.

Basis of Importance
Grid Substations In such types of substations, bulk power is
transmitted from one point to another point in the grid. These are
important because any distribution in these substations may
cause the failure of the grid.
Town Substations These substations step down the voltage
at 33/11 kV for more distribution in the towns. If there is any fault
occurs in this substation, then the supply of the whole town is
blocked.
On the Basis of Design
Indoor Type Substations In such type of substations, the
apparatus is installed within the substation building. Such type of
substations is usually for the voltage up to 11 KV but can be
raised for the 33 KV or 66 KV when the surrounding air is
polluted by dust, fumes or gasses, etc.
Outdoor Substations These substations are further
subdivided into two categories
Pole Mounted Substations Such Substations are erected for
distributions of power in the localities. Single stout pole or H-
pole and 4-pole structures with relevant platforms are operating
for transformers of capacity up to 25 KVA, 125 KVA, and above
125KVA.
Foundation Mounted Substations Such types of substations are
used for mounting the transformers having capacity 33,000 volts or
above.
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About PGCIL Balipara sub-station,tezpur:

The whole substation divided into three parts

400 KV
220KV
132KV

FEEDERS CONNECTED TO POWER GRID BALIPARA SUBSTATION

400KV :
1. MISA - 2 nos.of circuits
2. BONGAIGAON-(1,2,3,4)
3. BISHWANATH CHARIALI-(1,2,3,4)
4. KAMENG hydro project-(1,2)(under construction)

220KV
1. SONABIL - single circuit
2. ASEB

132KV
1. INCOMER-1 NEEPCO
2. INCOMER-2 ASEB
3. KHUPI NEEPCO
4. GOHPUR ASEB
5. DIPOTA ASEB

Equipments
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BUS BAR:

In electric power distribution, Bus bar is a system of electrical conductors in a

generating or receiving station on which power is concentrated for distribution.
They are also used to connect high voltage equipment at electrical switchyards.
They are generally uninsulated, and have sufficient stiffness to be supported in air by
insulated pillars.
Bus bars are produced in a variety of shapes such as flat strips, solid bars and rods
typically copper, brass or aluminium in solid or hollow tubes.

BUS BAR ARRANGEMENT/SCHEME:

1. Single bus bar scheme

2. Sectionalization of single bus bar scheme
3. Main and transfer bus bar scheme
4. Double main bus bar scheme
5. Double main cum transfer bus bar scheme
6. Double main and transfer bus bar scheme
7. One and half breaker bus bar scheme
8. Double breaker bus bar scheme

Single bus bar scheme:

This is the simplest arrangement consisting of a single set of a bus bar for the full length of
the switchyard and to this set of bus bars are connected to all the generators, transformer
and feeders as illustrated in the figure.

Used for transmission system upto 33KV SS.

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Advantages:

Lower cost
Small land area requirement
Easily expandable
Simple in concept and operation

Disadvantages:
Lowest reliability.
Failure of circuit breaker cause loss of feeder.
Bus bar fault causes blackout of entire sub-station.

Sectionalisation of single bus bar scheme:

The bus-bar may be sectionalized by a circuit breaker and isolating switches so that
a fault on one part does not cause a complete shutdown.
In a sectionalized bus bar arrangement only one additional circuit breaker is required
which does not cost much in comparison to the total cost of the bus bar system.

Used for sub-station limit of 33kV and 66 kV.

Advantages:

Higher reliability than single bus bar system.

Isolation of bus section for maintenance.
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Only the faulty section will be tripped by bus differential protection.

Disadvantages:
Higher cost than simple single bus system.
Loss of circuit/feeder for circuit breaker failure.

Main and transfer bus bar scheme:

This is an alternative of double bus system.

The main conception of Main and Transfer Bus System is, here every feeder line is
directly connected through an isolator to a second bus called transfer bus. The said
isolator in between transfer bus and feeder line is generally called bypass isolator.
The main bus is as usual connected to each feeder through a bay consists of circuit
breaker and associated isolators at both side of the breaker.
There is one bus coupler bay which couples transfer bus and main bus through a
circuit breaker and associated isolators at both sides of the breaker.
If necessary the transfer bus can be energized by main bus power by closing the
transfer bus coupler isolators and then breaker.
Then the power in transfer bus can directly be fed to the feeder line by closing the
bypass isolator.
If the main circuit breaker associated with feeder is switched off or isolated from
system, the feeder can still be fed in this way by transferring it to transfer bus.

Used in sub-station of limit of 132kV.

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Advantages :
Circuit breaker outage/maintenance does not disturb the service of feeder.
Reasonable cost.
Fairly small land area required.
Easily expandable.
Disadvantages :
In case of bus bar fault entire substation get blackout.
Additional circuit breaker is required.

any feeder can be taken from any of the bus. Actually every feeder is connected to both of
the buses in parallel through individual isolator as Double main bus bar scheme :

In double main bus bar system two identical bus bars are used in such a way that
shown in the figure.
By closing any of the isolators one can put the feeder to associated bus.
Both of the buses are energized and total feeders are divided into two groups,
one group is fed from one bus and other from other bus. But any feeder at any
time can be transferred from one bus to other. There is one bus coupler breaker
which should be kept close during bus transfer operation.
For transfer operation, one should first close the bus coupler circuit breaker then
close the isolator associated with the bus to where the feeder would be
transferred and then open the isolator associated with the bus from where feeder
is transferred.

.
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Used for sub-station of limit upto 132kV

Advantages :

Circuit breaker outage/maintenance does not disturb the service of feeder/circuits.

Reasonable cost.
Fairly small land area required.
Easily expandable.
Disadvantages :
The arrangement does not permit breaker maintenance with out interruption.
Interuption of power during isolator operation.

Double main cum transfer bus bur scheme :

The double main cum transfer bus bar scheme provides the facilities of a double bus
arrangement and a main a transfer bus arranement.
The bus to which transfer bus isolator is connected can be used as a transfer bus
also.
During the time a circuit is bypass ,the bus coupler will act as the breaker for the
bypass circuit.

used for sub-station of limit of 220kV.

Normally this used for most industrial stations and sometimes small power evacution
systems.

Advantages :

Bus bar outage/maintenance does not distrub services of feeder.

Circuit breaker outage/maintenance does not disturb the service of feeder/circuits.
Reasonable cost.
Fairly small land area required.
Easily expandable.
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Disadvantages :

Additional isolator is used.

Interruption of power during isolator operation.

Double main and transfer bus bar scheme :

This system is a combination of Main and Transfer Bus and Double Bus
Arrangement.
This has got flexibility of transferring any circuit to any of the main buses.
For maintenance or any fault occurrence on a bus, particular bus only becomes
dead, while the other bus continues to be in service.
Any circuit breaker can be taken out for maintenance by transferring that circuit to
transfer bus, and transferring its protection to transfer bus coupler circuit breaker.

Used for 220kV capacity sub-stations.

Advantages :

Maintenance of bus and circuit breaker does not interrupt supply.

Bus bar and circuit breaker outage does not distrub service of feeders.
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Disadvantages :

Additional isolator and circuit breaker required for transfer bus tie
Interruption of power during isolator operation.
Interruption of power is likely to cause major disturbance if the feeder are important
and heavily loaded.

One and half breaker bus bar scheme :

This is an improvement on the double breaker scheme to effect saving in the

number of circuit breakers. For every two circuits only one spare breaker is
provided.
As shown in the figure that it is a simple design, two feeders are fed from two
different buses through their associated breakers and these two feeders are
coupled by a third breaker which is called tie breaker.
Normally all the three breakers are closed and power is fed to both the circuits
from two buses which are operated in parallel.
The tie breaker acts as coupler for the two feeder circuits.
During failure of any feeder breaker, the power is fed through the breaker of the
second feeder and tie breaker, therefore each feeder breaker has to be rated to
feed both the feeders, coupled by tie breaker
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Used for 400kV sub stations. (eg.PGCIL Balipara sub-staion )

Advantages:

Double feed to each circuit.

Bus fault does not interrupt service to any circuit.
All switching done with circuit breaker.

Disadvantages:

One-half breaker per circuit.

This scheme is much expensive due to investment for third breaker.

Double breaker bus bar scheme :

In double breaker bus bar system two identical bus bars are used in such a way that
any outgoing or incoming feeder can be taken from any of the bus similar to double
bus bar system.
Only difference is that here every feeder is connected to both of the buses in parallel
through individual breaker instead only isolator as shown in the figure. By closing any
of the breakers and its associated isolators one can put the feeder to respective bus.
Both of the buses are energized and total feeders are divided into two groups, one
group is fed from one bus and other from other bus similar to previous case. But any
feeder at any time can be transferred from one bus to other.
There is no need of bus coupler as because the operation is done by breakers
instead of isolator.
For transfer operation, one should first close the isolators and then the breaker
associated with the bus to where the feeder would be transferred and then he or she
opens the breaker and then isolators associated with the bus from where feeder is
transferred.
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Used in mega generation unit.

Advantages :

No interruption of service to any circuits from bus fault.

Loss of only one circuit for breaker failure.
All switching with circuit breaker.
Flexible operation.
Very high reliability.
Isolation of either main bus for maintenance without disrupting services.

Disadvantages:

This configuration carries high cost.

Two circuit breaker for each circuit.

Lightning Arrester:

A lightning arrester is a device used on electrical power systems to protect

the insulation and conductors of the system from the damaging effects
of lightning. The typical lightning arrester has a high-voltage terminal and a
ground terminal. When a lightning surge (or switching surge, which is very
similar) travels along the power line to the arrester, the current from the surge
is diverted through the arrestor, in most cases to earth.

If protection fails or is absent, lightning that strikes the electrical system

introduces thousands of kilovolts that may damage the transmission lines, and
can also cause severe damage to transformers and other equipments of the
substation.

Lightning arresters built for power substation use are immense devices,
consisting of a porcelain tube several feet long and several inches in diameter,
typically filled with discs of zinc oxide. A safety port on the side of the device
vents the occasional internal explosion without shattering the porcelain
cylinder.

Lightning arresters are rated by the peak current they can withstand, the
amount of energy they can absorb, and the breakover voltage that they
require to begin conduction. They are applied as part of a lightning protection
system.
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Capacitor Voltage Transformer:

A capacitor voltage transformer (CVT), is a transformer used in power
systems to step down extra high voltage signals and provide a low
voltage signal, for metering or operating a protective relay.

In power substations the Capacitive voltage transformers used are capacitor

graded with almost equal capacitance, the voltage divided across each is
equal. The number of capacitors used are very huge. So, the potential stress
on each of them is very low.

Capacitive voltage transformers exist and are used by utilities for high-voltage
(greater than 66 kV) metering. They have a capacitive voltage divider but also
have a dual-winding transformer to couple the divided voltage to the metering
circuit. They tend to have lower allowable burdens than a wound transformer
but can be made economically at higher voltage ratings. Another difference is
that even though they decrease voltage, they do not increase current as found
in wound electromagnetic transformers.

The CVT is also useful in communication systems. CVTs in combination with

wave traps are used for filtering high-frequency communication signals from
power frequency. This forms a carrier communication network throughout the
transmission network, to communicate between substations. The CVT is
installed at a point after Lightning Arrester and before Wave trap.
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Fig: The circuit diagram for a simple capacitor voltage transformer

Wave Trap:
A wave trap (high-frequency stopper) is a maintenance-free parallel resonant
circuit, mounted inline on high-voltage (HV) AC transmission power lines to
prevent the transmission of high frequency (40 kHz to 1000 kHz) carrier
signals of power line communication to unwanted destinations. Wave traps
are cylinder-like structures connected in series with HV transmission lines. A
wave trap is also called a line trap.[1]
The wave trap acts as a barrier or filter to prevent signal losses. The inductive
reactance of the line trap presents a high reactance to high-frequency signals
but a low reactance to mains frequency. This prevents carrier signals from
being dissipated in the substation or in a tap line or branch of the main
transmission path and grounds in the case of anything happening outside of
the carrier transmission path. The line trap is also used to attenuate the
shunting effects of high-voltage lines.
The trap consists of three major components: the main coil, the tuning device,
and the protective device (also known as a surge arrester). The protective and
tuning devices are mounted inside the main coil.

Inductive Reactance, XL=2fL (Provided by Wave Trap)

Capacitive Reactance, Xc=2fC (Provided by Capacitive Voltage Transformer)
XL provides a very high impedence to the carrier signal (around 100 kHz) and Xc
provides a very high impedence to the power signal (50 Hz).
Thus carrier signal is trapped by the Wave trap.
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Current Transformer-

A CT is an instrument transformer in which the secondary current is substantially

proportional to primary current and differs in phase from it by ideally zero degree.

It is used for measuring high value currents. It is Designed to provide a current in its
secondary coil proportional to current flowing in its primary coil. The Primary winding
consists of very few turns and the Secondary winding consists of large no. of
turns.Current to be measured is passes through primary winding.
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Out look of C.T:

Primary current is dependent upon the load connected to the system.

Secondary winding is short circuited with the help of an ammeter.
It steps down the current to level of ammeter.
Secondary winding consists of more no. of cores.
One is used for metering purpose and other cores are protection purpose.
In metering core the fault current is measured so secondary current rating is more.
Current transformer are used with ammeters, protective and regulating relays and
the trip coil of circuit breakers. One current transformer can be used to operate
several instruments, provided that the combined burden does not exceed that for
which the transformer is designed and compensated.
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Live tank Current Transformer-

In live tank current transformer, the main core of the transformer is placed in the top tank.
The top tank also houses the secondary winding which is termed as live part of the
transformer body. Before placing them inside the tank, which is typically made of mild steel,
the core and secondary winding is insulated with various types of insulating material to
protect it from high voltage current.

The primary winding in a live tank CT is constructed of short length. This is done intentionally
as a shorter shape provides higher levels of durability and strength when the primary
winding is exposed to short time current.

In terms of functionality, in a live tank current transformer the heat generated during a short
term current test is minimal due to faster dissipation of heat by the primary coil into the
transformer oil which is filled in the tank.

In terms of costs, a live tank current transformer is cheaper to manufacture as it is more

compact in size. Less steel is required in construction of the transformer tank body which
means it uses lesser transformer oil. Thus it becomes more economical to produce. They
are also smaller in size which reduces the volume of space required to store or transport
them.

Dead tank Current Transformer-

Dead tank current transformer are a category of current transformers in which the core of the
transformer and its secondary winding are placed in the bottom part of the transformer tank.
This tank is earthed which gives it the term dead tank.

The primary winding in a dead tank CT is insulated similarly to other current transformers
and is then brought down to the bottom tank where it is earthed. Further, the primary is
made to pass through an insulated porcelain. In Dead tank CTs, the length of the primary
conductor decides the mechanical force exerted on the transformer when it is exposed to
short time dynamic current. It is therefore important to increase the length of the primary
conductor to ensure that there is no damage to the transformer when it is exposed to high
currents.
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The size and shape of dead tank current transformers are large. They use up more steel in
construction of transformer tank. Since the size of the transformer tank is larger, it also uses
more transformer oil which makes it expensive to produce compared to live tank CTs. They
are heavier and as such transportation costs involved in transporting them from
manufacturing location to installation locations is more. As such, the demand for dead CTs is
lower compared to live tank CTs.

Testing of current transformers in turret-

Turret is the housing of the CTs to be placed in the bottom of the bushing. The CTs are ring
type and used for protection of the Transformer. Bushing lead is the primary and the ring coil
is the secondary of the CT. Following test are done before erection of the turret on the
transformer tank.

1. Insulation resistance test of the secondary coil-

Iris measured with a 500w testing kit and value should be 10M.

2. Ratio test-
The test is done by injecting current in a primary lead passing through the ring and
measure the current in the secondary terminals. The value should be as
per the name plate data with 1%

3. Polarity check- the test is done with a 12v DC battery by switch on and switch
off principle.

CIRCUIT BREAKER:-

Circuit breaker is a switching device which can be operated manually and automatically for
controlling and protection of electrical power system.

The Circuit breakers are used to break the circuit in any normal or abnormal
condition. The normal condition is when we take shutdown and abnormal condition is any
fault in the feeder. There are two insulators one before and one after the circuit breaker in a
bay. The Circuit Breaker breaks automatically for short circuit fault or any other types of
electrical fault which may cause the power network to suffers a high stress of fault current in
them and damage the equipment and networks permanently.

Main components of circuit breaker:

1.support structure

2.support column with operating shaft

3.inturrepter with fixed contact

4.pre-insertion resistor
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5.CB operating box

Types of circuit breaker

According to their arc quenching media the circuit breaker can be devided as:

1.oil circuit breaker

2.air circuit breaker

3.SF6 circuit breaker

4.Vacuum circuit breaker

The purpose of the di-electric media in CB is for providing insulation between the live
parts of CB and extinguishing the arc generated during the making and breaking of CB
contact.

According to the operating mechanism of circuit breaker they can be devided as:

1.spring operated circuit breaker

2.pneumatic circuit breaker

3.hydrolic circuit breaker

There are mainly two types of circuit breakers used for any substation:

1.SF6 Circuit Breakers

2.MOCB Breakers

1.SF6 CIRCUIT BREAKERS:

The use of SF6 Circuit breaker is mainly in the EHV substations which have high
input KV. In such breakers,Sulphurhexaflouride gas (SF6) is used as quenching medium
because sulphurhexaflouride gas (SF6) is an electronegative gas and has a strong tendency
to absorb free electrons.

Advantages of SF6:

Due to the superior arc quenching properties of sulphurhexaflouride gas (SF6) , the SF6
Circuit Breakers have many advantages over oil or air circuit breakers. Some are listed
below:

1.Due to superior quenching property of sulphurhexaflouride gas (SF6),such circuit breakers

have very high arcing time.

2.Since the dielectric strength of sulphurhexaflouride (SF6)gas is 2 to 3 times that operation

due unlike of air,such breakers can interrupt much larger current.
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2.MINIMUM OIL CIRCUIT BREAKER (MOCB):

A MOCB places the interrupting unit in insulating oil is available only in interrupting
chamber.The features of designing MOCB is to reduce the requirement of oil and hence this
breaker is called minimum oil circuit breaker.It is used generally in 33kv and 132kv.

Testing of circuit breaker:

1.Measurement of CB operating timing:

Closing time ,opening time and close open time of thrCB are measured with CB operational
analyzer kit and results to be as per manufacturer recommendation.

2.testing for pole descrepency operation:

The closing time of all the poles should be same.if some poles are delayed in closing ,the
other pole should trip.

3.static and dynamic control resistant measurement:

The SCR test indicates proper making of the contact on closing of the CB.the DCRM test
indicates the contact resistance during the closing andopening operation.this test along
contact travel test indicate the perfection of contact making and its quality.

4.operation lock-out of CB:

At the instant of low pressure of SF6 inside the CB in the prescribed limit,the breaker should
not be operatedfor safety.this is done by providing interlocking in closing and tripping
circuit.checking of this interlock is very important.

5.Insulation resistance test:

In CB open conditionthe IR values are measured between fixed contact to earth,moving

contact to earth,and fix and moving contact through a 5 kv insulation tester.

8. ISOLATOR:

Isolator is a manually operated mechanical switch which separates a part of the electrical
power.Isolators are used to open a circuit under no load.Its main purpose is to isolate one
portion of the circuit from the other and not intended to be opened while current is flowing in
the line.

Types of isolators:

Depending upon the system requirement isolators can be divided as:

1.single break

2.double break

3.tandem isolator
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Depending upon the position in the power system ,the isolators are divided as:

1.bus side isolator: the isolator is directly connected with main bus

2.line side isolator: the isolator is situated at line side of any feeder

3.transfer bus side isolator: the isolator is directly connected with transfer bus

main components of a isolator:

1.main structure

3.support insulator

4.rotary insulator

4.moving blade

5.fixed contact opening arm

6.mechanical operating mechanism box

Earthing switches:

Earthing switches are mounted on the base of mainly line side isolator. Earthing switches
are normally vertically break switches. Contact arm of earthing switchs are normally aligned
horizontally at off condition during switching on operation. These earthing arms rotate and
move to vertical position and make contact with earth female contacts fitted at the top of the
post insulator stack of isolator at its outgoing side.The earthing arms are so interlocked with
main isolator moving contacts that it can be closed only when the main contacts of isolator
are in open position.The main isolator contacts can be closed only when the earthing arms
are in open position.

TRANSFORMER

A transformer is a static machine used for transforming power from one circuit to another
without any direct electrical connection and with help of mutual induction between two
windings. It transforms power from one circuit to another without changing its frequency
but may be in different voltage level.

TYPES OF TRANSFORMER

(1). As per construction :

(a) Core type transformer (b) Shell type transformer

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2). As per voltage :

(a) Stepup transformer

(b) Stepdown transformer

(3). As per operational phase :

(a) 1 Transformer

(b) 3 Transformer

(4). As per winding :

(a)single winding transformer

(Auto-Transformer)

(b) Two winding transformer

(c) Three winding transformer

(5). As per application :

Mainly two types ---

(a) Power Transformer

rating above 2.5 MVA

used in EHV and UHV systems with two-winding as well as

Three-winding features

used either as step-up or step-down transformer

(b) Distribution Transformer

rating between 25 kVA to 315 kVA for pole mounting 350KVA to 2.5 MVA for ground
mounting type

use in medium voltage systems (3.3 kV to 33 kV)

used for distribution of power for domestic, commercial and

industrial purpose

b1 : resin moulded dry type air-cooled indoor transformer

b2 : oil immersed conventional transformer with conservator,

b3 : oil immersed hermatically sealed transformer nitrogen gas cushoined

PRINCIPLE OF TRANSFORMER
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a transformer works on the principle of electromagnetic induction between two(or

more)coupled circuits or coils.emf is induced in the transformers secondary coil by the
magnetic flux generated by the voltages and currents flowing in the primary coil winding.

Distribution Transformer Ratings

kVA ratings : 63 kVA, 100 kVA,

25 kVA, 40 kVA etc.

Voltage ratings : 6.6 kV/415 V,

11 kV/415 V

Tappings : 2.5%, 5.0%

CONSTRUCTION

(01). Core

(02). Windings

(03). Tap Changers

(04). Tanks

(05). Bushings

(06). Auxiliary Equipments

(07). Cooling System

(08). Insulating Oil

(09). Conservator Tank

(10). Breather

(11). Radiators

(12). Buchholz Relay

1.transformer core

in an electrical power transformer,there are primary ,secondary and may be tertiary

windings.the performance of transformer mainly depends upon the flux linkages between
these windings.for efficient flux linking between these windings,one low reluctance magnetic
path in transformer is known as core of transformer.

2.tertiary winding
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in some high rating transformer,one winding in addition to its primary and secondary winding
is used.the additional winding ,apart from primary and secondary windings,is known as
tertiary winding of transformer.because of this third winding ,the transformer called three
winding transformer.

it reduces the unbalancing in yhe primary due to unbalancing in the three phase load.
it redistributes the flow of fault current.
as the tertiary winding is connected in delta formation in 3 winding transformer ,it
assists in limitation of fault current in the event of short circuit from line to neutral.
Its purpose is to provide a circulating path for the harmonics produced in the
transformers along with power frequency. It reduces unbalancing in primary winding.

3.tap changer
Voltage control in electric power supply network is required for adjustment of voltage
at consumers premises as short period (1 2 %), daily (3 5 %) and seasonal (5
10 %) voltage variations in accordance with variations of load.
Tappings are invariably provided on the HV winding.
fine voltage variation
current interruption level
position of HV and LV windings w.r.t. core
managing the situation under low-load conditions

4.tanks
basically it is a container used to keep windings(both) and cooling oils.
The Tank and cover is fabricated from mild steel plate, blended and welded to
construct them as required size and shape. The fabricated tank (before
coating/painting) is subjected to pressure test to ensure no oil leakage
The inner dimensions of the transformer are fixed by the active dimensions of
the
transformers and clearances between windings and grounded parts of
transformer.

5.bushings
bushing is an insulated device that is used to prevent unwanted leakage of
electricity.
Up to 33 kV Porcelain Bushings
Above 33 kV Condenser Bushings
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OIP Oil Impregnated Bushings

RIP Resin Impregnated Bushings
SRBP Synthetic Resin Bonded
Paper Bushings

6.auxillary equipements

a) Temperature Indicators

Winding Temperature Indicator(WTI) :

It indicates transformer winding temperature. Input either from current transformer or

from Resistance Temperature Detector embedded in the winding. Indicator is placed
in the Marshalling Kiosk and set for alarm and tripping.

Top Oil Temperature Indicator (OTI):

The thermocouple is placed in the pocket (filled with transformer oil) provided with
the top of the main tank near the hot oil. Thermocouple is connected to oil temperature
indicator placed in Marshalling Kiosk. Thermometer is set for alarm and tripping at a desired
temperature.

b)pressure relief valve

the pressure relief valve plays a significant role in the protection of a power transformer.a
major fault in the transformer causes vaporisation of the oil,leading to rapid build up of
gaseous pressure.if this pressure is not released within few seconds,the tank buldges and
bursts(ruptured),resulting into spiling of oil over wide area and sometimes causing fire.

pressure relief valve is mounted on the tank cover or on one side of the tank,and provide
instantaneous release of oil/vapour pressure.

Two types of PRV are provided :

Diaphragm Type (Explosion Vent)

Spring Loaded Type (Pressure Relief Vent)

7. Transformers Cooling Systems

Mediums of Cooling :

Air symbol is A

Gas symbol is G

Synthetic Oil symbol is L

Mineral Oil symbol is O

 26

Solid Insulation - symbol is S

Water symbol is W

Circulation :

Natural symbol is N

Forced symbol is F

Different cooling systems employed for oil immersed power and distribution
transformers are :

1. ONAN (Oil Natural, Air Natural) : cooling by Radiators only

2. ONAF (Oil Natural, Air Forced) : cooling by Radiator and Fans

3. OFAN (Oil Forced, Air Natural) : forced oil circulation by oil pump and coolers

4. OFAF (Oil Forced, Air Forced) : forced oil circulation and forced air cooling

5. OFWF (Oil Forced, Water Forced) : forced oil and forced air cooling

8.insulating oil

One of the most important factors which determines the life and satisfactory
operation of a Transformer is the oil in which it is immersed. The insulating oil for
Transformers (and Switchgear) is a pure hydrocarbon mineral oil with or without
additives. It performs two prime functions :

to provide acceptable level of insulation between the conductors and coils

to extract heat as a coolant without losing its insulating properties

9. conservator tank

this is a cylindrical tank mounted on supporting structure on the roof of the transformer main
tank.the main function of conservator tank is to provide adequate space for expansion of oils
inside the transformer.

10.silica gel breather

Whenever there is a change in the ambient temperature or in the load of an oil

immersed transformer, there is a change in oil temperature and, consequently in the
volume of oil. Increase in volume causes the air above the oil level in the conservator
to be pushed out and decrease in oil volume causes air to be drawn in. Thus, the
transformer breathes.
 27

When air is breathed-in, there is a possibility of moisture and dust from atmosphere
to be sucked in. These contaminants deteriorate the insulation properties of oil.

Silica Gel Breather is provided which arrests moisture and dust from the drawn in air,
and admits only dry air.

Normal (dry) colour of Silica Gel is bright blue, which becomes pink when moisture is
absorbed. It can be dried by heating during the periodic maintenance, to obtain blue
colour.

11.Radiators :

The purpose of radiators is to limit the temperature of oil and winding in a transformer by
dissipating heat and therefore cooling of transformer oil.

Radiators are manufactured from cold rolled steel sheets, cold drawn and seam
welded to form its desired dimensions and then galvanized after fabrication.

In power and ehv for cooling radiators, fans and pumps fitted seperately.

12. Buchholzs relay :

It is a very sensitive gas and oil operated instrument which safely detects the
formation of gas or sudden pressure inside the transformer.

Buchholz Protection : This is used for two types of faults inside the transformer.

(a) For incipient faults because of

1. Core bolt insulation failure

2. Short circuit in laminations

3. Local over heating because of clogging of oil

4. Excess ingress of air in oil system

5. Loss of oil due to heavy leakage

6. Uneven load sharing between two transformers in parallel causing overheating due
to circulating current.

These generate gasses collected in the upper chamber while flowing towards the
conservator, the oil level drops, and the top float triggers the alarm switch.

(b). For serious faults inside the transformer due to

1. Short circuit between phases

2. Winding earth faults

 28

3. Puncture on bushing

4. Tap changer problems

These types of faults are of serious nature and operate both the floats provided in the
Buchholz Relay and trip out the transformer

Vector Grouping :

The Determination of vector group of transformers is very important before

connecting two or more transformers in parallel. If two transformers of different vector
groups are connected in parallel then phase difference exists between the
secondaries of the transformers and large circulating current flows between the two
transformers which is very detrimental.

First symbol/symbols, capital letters :

HV winding connection.

Second symbol/symbols, small letters :

LV winding connection.

Third symbol, number :

Phase displacement expressed

as the clock hour number.

Winding connection designations :

High Voltage : Always capital letters

Delta D , Star Y , Interconnected star - Z
Neutral brought out - N

Low voltage : Always small letters. Delta d , Star y , Interconnected star - z

Neutral brought out - n

Vector Group Phase IEC Standard

No. Displacement Vector Notation

1 0 Yy0 , Dd0 and Dz0

2 180 Yy6 , Dd6 and Dz6

3 30 Yd1 , Dy1 and Yz1

 29

4 + 30 Yd11 , Dy11 and Yz11

Phase Displacement :
Phase rotation is always anti-clockwise. (international adopted convention)
Use the hour indicator as the indicating phase displacement angle. Because there
are 12 hours on a clock, and a circle consists out of 360, each hour represents 30.
Thus 1 = 30, 2 = 60, 3 = 90, 6 = 180 and 12 = 0 or 360.
The minute hand is set on 12 o'clock and replaces the line to neutral voltage
(sometimes imaginary) of the HV winding. This position is always the reference point.
Because rotation is anti-clockwise, 1 = 30 lagging (LV lags HV with 30)and 11 =
330 lagging or 30 leading (LV leads HV with 30).

Reactor:
For transmission lines, the space between overhead line and ground forms a
capacitor parallel to transmission line, which causes an increase in voltage as
the distance increases. When a network becomes larger, sometimes the
short-circuit current on transmission line exceeds the short-circuit rating of the
equipment. To offset the capacitive effect of the transmission line and to
regulate the voltage and reactive power of the power system, reactors are
 30

connected either at line terminals or at the middle, thereby improving the

voltage profile of transmission line.

Bus Reactors:
A bus reactor is a type of air core inductor, or in some cases, oil filled,
connected between two buses or two sections of the same bus in order to limit
the voltage transients on either bus. It is installed in a bus to maintain system
voltage when the load of the bus changes. It adds inductance to the system to
offset the capacitance of the line which varies due to load, humidity, weather,
generator excitation and temperature.

Shunt Reactors:
Shunt reactors are used in power systems to counteract the effect of the line
parasitic capacitance, thereby stabilizing the system voltage within acceptable
limits. For short lines, we can basically ignore the impact of capacitive current
from a voltage regulation point of view, but medium and long lines can have
voltages at their receiving end much higher than the sending end, thus
creating issues such as over-fluxing of power transformers and over stressing
of line insulators. Under light-load conditions, the line produces more VARs,
resulting in receiving end voltage being higher than sending end voltage. In
order to consume the excess VARs when system is lightly loaded, an inductor
is added to the system. Since inductors absorbs VARs, a reactor is connected
in parallel with shunt capacitance of the line known as Shunt Reactor.
 31

PROTECTION

1. Equipment Protection
2. Transmission Line Protection

EQUIPMENT PROTECTION SCHEME

1. Differential Relay
2. Restricted Earth Fault (REF)
3. Backup Impedance
4. Buchholz Relay
5. Pressure Release Valve/Device (PRV)
6. Oil Temperature Indicator/Winding Temperature Indicator (OTI/WTI)

1. Differential Relay

NORMAL CONDITION
P
 32

The P arrow above the equipment (transformer) shows the flow of power.

EXTERNAL FAULT CONDITION

P

In external fault condition the differential relay is not able to detect the fault. It is
because of the no directional chance of currents of current transformers (CTs) thus at OP
both currents I1 and I2 subtract each other and results in zero difference, so it does not
send trip signal to relay. Hence there is no interruption of power flow (P).

INTERNAL FAULT CONDITION

 33

In internal fault condition the differential relay is able to detect the fault. It is because of
the directional chance of current of one of the current transformers (CTs), thus at OP
both currents I1 and I2 adds up and results in non-zero difference current, so it does
sends trip signal to relay. Hence there will be a interruption of power flow (P).

2. RESTRICTED EARTH FAULT

Earth fault is the fault between the live conductor and the earth. It occurs because of the
insulation breakdown. When the fault occurs the short-circuit currents flow through the
system, and this current is returned through the earth or through any electrical
equipment. This fault current damaged the equipment of the power system and also
interrupted the continuity of the supply.

The earth fault can be dispersed by using the restricted earth fault protection scheme.
The earth fault protection scheme consist the earth fault relay, which gives the tripping
command to the circuit breaker and hence restricted the fault current.

3. BACKUP IMPEDANCE

This protection scheme is used for the protection of reactors by an inverse neutral over-
current protection to detect high magnitude winding-to-ground faults. Its generally
monitor the impedance of the reactor.

4. BUCHHOLZ RELAY
 34

It is connected between the main tank and the conservator tank of the transformer
which is inclined to 30 degrees. How it works? If there is occurrence of fault in the
transformer the oil of the tank gets over heated and gases are formed. The generation
of gases may be slow or fast depending upon the type of fault whether it is minor or
incipient one or heavy short circuit. Buchholz consist two hinged floats one at the top of
the metallic chamber and other one is at bottom of the chamber.

During minor fault, gas bubbles are generate which goes to upper side of the chamber
and compress the oil, this disturbs the float and float tilts ad the alarm circuit is closed
through mercury switch and the indication is given.

During heavy fault, large volume of gases is formed which cause violent displacement of
the oil and disturbs the lower float. The lower float tilts and the contacts are closed
which trip the transformer.

5. PRESSURE RELEASE VALVE

It is used in the emulsifying system. It works when there is a pressure difference between the
water source and quartz, during catching of fire or over heating of the equipment the quartz
breakdown and thus makes changes in pressure and valve gets open.

6. OTI/WTI

The WTI means winding temperature Indicator and OTI means Oil temperature Indicator
which indicates the winding temperature & oil temperature of the transformer and
operates the alarm, trip, and cooler control contacts. This instrument operates on the
principle of thermal imaging and it is not an actual measurement.
 35

DISTANCE PROTECTION

Fig: 3-zone protection

The above figure consists of two line sections AB and CD; it is desired to provide distance
protection scheme.

The protection scheme is divided in three zones, i.e. Z1, Z2, and Z3. Z1 corresponds to
approximately 80% length of the line AB and is a high speed zone. The ordinates shown
corresponding to Z1 gives the operating time in case the fault takes place in this zone.
 36

Second zone Z2 for relay at A covers remaining 20% length of the line AB and 20% of the
adjoining line. In case of a fault in this section relay at A will operate when the time
elapsed corresponds to the ordinate Z2. The main idea of the second zone is to provide
protection for the remaining 20% section of the line AB. In case of arcing fault in section
AB which adds to the impedance of the line as seen by the rely at A, the adjustment is
such that the relay at A will see that impedance in second zone and will operate. This is
why the second zone is extended into the adjoining line. The operating time of the
second zone is normally about 0.2 to 0.5 second.

The third zone unit at A provides back up protection for faults in the line CD, i.e., if there
is a fault in the line CD and if for some reason the relay at C fails to operate then relay at
A will provide backup protection. The delay time for the third zone is usually 0.4 to 1.00
sec.

In case of the feeder is being fed from both the ends and say the fault takes place in the
second zone of the line AB (20% of the line AB), the relay at B will operate
instantaneously (because it lies in the first zone BA) whereas the fault lies in the second
zone of the relay at A. This is undesirable from stability point of view and it is desirable
to avoid this delay. This is made possible when the relay at B gives an inter trip signal to
the relay at A in order to trip the breaker quickly rather than waiting for zone-2 tripping.

STEP POTENTIAL

Step potential is the step voltage between the feet of a person standing near an
energized grounded object.
 37

When a fault occurs at a tower or substation, the current will enter the earth. Based on
the distribution of varying resistivity in the soil a corresponding voltage distribution will
occur. The voltage drop in the soil surrounding the grounding system can present
hazards for personnel standing in the vicinity of the grounding system. Personnel
stepping in the direction of the voltage gradient could be subjected to hazardous
voltages.

In the case of Step Potentials or step voltage, electricity will flow if a difference in
potential exists between the two legs of a person. Calculations must be performed that
determine how great the tolerable step potentials are and then compare those results
to the step voltages expected to occur at the site.

High soil resistivity tends to increase Step Potentials. A high resistivity top layer and low
resistivity bottom layer tends to result in the highest step voltages close to the ground
electrode: the low resistivity bottom layer draws more current out of the electrode
through the high resistivity layer, resulting in large voltage drops near the electrode.
Further from the ground electrode, the worst case scenario occurs when the soil has
conductive top layers and resistive bottom layers: in this case, the fault current remains
in the conductive top layer for much greater distances away from the electrode.

TOUCH POTENTIAL
 38

When a fault occurs at a tower or substation, the current will pass through any metallic
object and enter the earth. Those personnel touching an object in the vicinity of the
GPR (Ground Potential Rise) will be subjected to these touch voltages which may be
hazardous.

For example if a person happens to be touching a high-voltage tower leg when a fault
occurs, the electricity would travel down the tower leg into the persons hand and
through vital organs of the body. It would then continue on its path and exit out through
the feet and into the earth. If a person having long arms and touching the tower leg and
yet standing away, he would have a huge difference in potential between his feet and
the tower, so larger the difference in potential there will be a larger hazardous.

DISSOLVED GAS ANALYSIS OF TRANSFORMER OIL

The gases in oil are extracted and the quantity is analysed. By observing percentage of
different gases present in oil, one can predict the internal condition of a new transformer.
Generally no hydrocarbon should be present as it causes thermal stresses and
decomposition of insulation. However O2 and N2 may be present. The total gas content
should be less than 1%.

Frequency Response Analysis (FRA)-

FRA is conducted to assess the mechanical integrity of the transformer which may get
disturbed due to transportation shocks. FRA signatures will be taken after assembly and oil
filling and compared with factory testing to ensure the healthiness of core/coil assembly
during transportation.

Measurement of voltage ratio:

The performance of a transformer largely upon perfection of specific turns or voltage ratio of
transformer. The voltage should be applied only in the high voltage winding to get current of
low magnitude. It is done at various tap position by applying 3 phases ,415V supply on HV
and LV side of Power transformer.. At Various taps applied voltage and Resultant between
various Phases and phases and neutral measured with precision voltmeter and noted. Test
can detect Shorted turns or open circuits in the windings,incorrect winding connections,
and other internal faults or defects in tap changer.
With 415 V applied on high voltage side, voltage between all phases on the low
voltage(LV) and intermediate voltage(IV) side is measured for every tap position.Reapeating
the same procedure on IV side,the voltage is measured in LV.The ratios are calculated in
each case which should be as per the name plate data.

Polarity test:

Polarity means the direction of the induced voltages in the primary and the secondary
winding of the transformer. It is essential to know the relative polarities at any instant of the
primary and the secondary terminals for making the correct connections if the transformers
are to be connected in parallel or they are used in a three phase circuit because while doing
parallel operation, if we connect terminals of opposite polarity, it will result in a dead short -
circuit. So, to connect the same polarity windings together both in primary and
 39

secondary, polarity test is done.

Each of the terminals of the primary as well as the secondary winding of a transformer is
alternatively positive and negative with respect to each other as shown in the figure below.
Let A1 and A2 be the positive and negative terminal respectively of the transformer primary
and a1, a2 are the positive and negative terminal of the secondary side of the transformer.If
A1 is connected to a1 and A2 is connected to a2 that means similar terminals of the
transformer are connected, then the polarity is said to be additive. If A1 is connected to
a2 and A2 to a1, that means the opposite terminals are connected to each other, and thus the
voltmeter will read the subtractive polarity.

Circuit Diagram of Polarity Test of Transformer

In the primary side, the terminals are marked as A1 and A2 and from the secondary side the
terminals are named as a1 and a2. The terminal A1 is connected to one end of the secondary
winding, and a voltmeter is connected between A2 and the other end of the secondary
winding.When the voltmeter reads the difference that is (V1 V2), the transformer is said to
be connected with opposite polarity know as Subtractive polarity and when the voltmeter
reads (V1 + V2), the transformer is said to have additive polarity.

Vector group test:

The vector group of transformer is an essential property of transformer for successful parallel
operation of transformer.It is done at factory site for ensuring the customer specified vector
group of transformer.The phase sequence or the order in which the phase reach their
manximum positive voltage must be identical for two paralleled
transformers.otherwise,during the cycle,each pair of phases will be short circuited.
 40

Open and Short Circuit Test on Transformer

These two tests are performed on a transformer to determine

1. equivalent circuit of transformer

2. voltage regulation of transformer
3. efficiency of transformer. The power required for these open circuit test and short
circuit test on transformer is equal to the power loss occurring in the transformer.
Open Circuit Test on Transformer
A voltmeter, wattmeter, and an ammeter are connected in LV side of the transformer as
shown. The voltage at rated frequency is applied to that LV side with the help of a variac of
variable ratio auto transformer.

The HV side of the transformer is kept open. Now with the help of variac, applied voltage
gets slowly increased until the voltmeter gives reading equal to the rated voltage of the LV
side. After reaching at rated LV side voltage, all three instruments reading (Voltmeter,
Ammeter and Wattmeter readings) are recorded.

The ammeter reading gives the no load

current Ie. As no load current Ie is quite small compared to rated current of the transformer,
the voltage drops due to this current that can be taken as negligible.
Since, voltmeter reading V1 can be considered equal to secondary induced voltage of the
transformer, the input power during test is indicated by watt-meter reading. As the
transformer is open circuited, there is no output, hence the input power here consists of
core losses in transformer and copper loss in transformer during no load condition. But as
said earlier, the no load current in the transformer is quite small compared to full load
current, so copper loss due to the small no load current can be neglected. Hence, the
wattmeter reading can be taken as equal to core losses in transformer. Let us consider
wattmeter reading is Po
 41

. .
Therefore it is seen that the open circuit test on transformer is used to determine core
losses in transforme.
Short Circuit Test on Transformer
A voltmeter, wattmeter, and an ammeter are connected in HV side of the transformer as
shown. The voltage at rated frequency is applied to that HV side with the help of a variac of
variable ratio auto transformer.

The LV side of the transformer is short circuited. Now with the help of variac applied voltage
is slowly increased until the ammeter gives reading equal to the rated current of the HV side.
After reaching at rated current of HV side, all three instruments reading (Voltmeter, Ammeter
and Watt-meter readings) are recorded. The ammeter reading gives the primary equivalent
of full load current IL. As the voltage applied for full load current in short circuit test on
transformer is quite small compared to the rated primary voltage of the transfomer, the
core losses in transformer can be

taken as negligible here. Lets say,

voltmeter reading is Vsc. The input power during test is indicated by watt-meter reading. As
the transformer is short circuited, there is no output; hence the input power here consists of
copper losses in transformer. Since, the applied voltage Vsc is short circuit voltage in the
transformer and hence it is quite small compared to rated voltage, so core loss due to the
small applied voltage can be neglected. Hence the wattmeter reading can be taken as equal
to copper losses in transformer. Let us consider wattmeter reading is Psc
.
Where Re is equivalent resistance of tr
Therefore it is seen that the short circuit test on transformer is used to determine
copper loss in transformer at full load and parameters of approximate equivalent circuit of
transformer.
Magnetic Balance Test
Magnetic balance test of transformer is conducted only on three phase transformers to
check the imbalance in the magnetic circuit. In case of auto transformer, magnetic balance
test of transformer should be repeated for LV winding also. There are three limbs side by
side in a core of transformer. One phase winding is wound in one limb. The voltage induced
in different phases depends upon the respective position of the limb in the core.Single phase
230 V AC supply is applied across one of the HV winding terminals and neutral
 42

terminal.Voltage in two other HV terminals is applied in respect of neutral terminal.The

applied voltage is equal to sum of the measured voltage of other phases.

Tan Delta Test |Loss Angle Test | Dissipation Factor Test

A pure insulator when is connected across line and earth behaves as a capacitor or a
dielectric and the electric current passing through the insulator, only have capacitive
component. There is no resistive component of the current, flowing from line to earth through
insulator. But due to ageing of insulator the impurities like, dirt and moisture enter into it.
which provide conductive path to the current. Consequently, leakage electric current flowing
from line earth through insulator has also resistive component. The healthiness of an
electrical insulator can be determined by ratio of resistive component to capacitive
component. For good insulator this ratio would be quite low. This ratio is commonly known
as tan or tan delta or as dissipation factor. The cable, winding, current
transformer, potential transformer, transformer bushing, on which tan delta
test or dissipation factor test to be conducted, is first isolated from the system.

In the vector diagram, the system voltage is drawn along x-axis. Conductive electric
current i.e. resistive component of leakage current, IR will also be along x-axis.As the
capacitive component of leakage electric current IC leads system voltage by 90, it will be
drawn along y-axis.Now, total leakage electric current IL(Ic + IR) makes an angle (say) with
y-axis.

From the diagram above, it is cleared, the ratio, IR to IC is nothing but tan or tan delta.

This angle is known as loss angle.

Insulation resitance

In insulation resistance test,the voltage is applied across the insulator. Due to this applied
high DC voltage there will be a current through the electrical insulator. Dividing the applied
voltage by this current we get the actual resistive value of the insulator.

Say the applied high voltage is V and corresponding current through the insulator,is I.Hence
as per Ohms law the value of insulation resistance is
 43

This test is generally done by means of megger.Megger gives required direct (DC) voltage
across the insulator, and it also shows the resistive value of insulation directly in Mohm
range.

It is done as:

*(HV) and (LV+E),(IV) and (HV+LV+E)

*(LV) and (HV+IV+E),(HV) and (IV)

*(IV) and (LV),(HV) and (LV)

Since the IR value of transformer insulating oil may vary with temperature.
IR values to be recorded at intervals of 15 seconds, 1 minute and 10 minutes.
With the duration of application of voltage, IR value increases. The increase in IR is an
indication of dryness of insulation.

Polarization index = 10 minutes value / 1 minute value. high polarization index of an insulator
implies healthiness of insulator.Minimum recommended value should be less than 4.
DIGITAL ELECTRONICS
.

Parallel operation of transformer

Two transformers are said to be connected in parallel if the primary windings are connected
to supply busbars and secondary windings are connected to load busbars.. While connecting
two or more than two transformers in parallel, it is essential that their terminals of similar
polarities are joined to the same busbars .The wrong connections may result in a dead short-
circuit and primary transformers may be damaged. There are three principal reasons for
connecting transformers in parallel. Firstly, if one transformer fails, the continuity of supply
can be maintained through other transformers. Secondly, when the load on the substation
becomes more than the capacity of the existing transformers, another transformer can be
added in parallel. Thirdly, any transformer can be taken out of the circuit for repair/routine
maintenance without interrupting supply to the consumers.

Conditions for satisfactory parallel operation

: (i) Transformers should be properly connected with regard to their polarities.

(ii) The voltage ratings and voltage ratios of the transformers should be the same.
 44

(iii) The per unit or percentage impedances of the transformers should be equal.

(iv) The reactance/resistance ratios of the transformers should be the same.

Vector group test

The vector group of transformer is an essential property for successful parallel operation
of transformers The phase sequence or the order in which the phases reach their maximum
positive voltages, must be identical for two paralleled transformers. Otherwise, during the
cycle, each pair of phases will be short circuited.
The several secondary connections are available in respect of various primary three phase
connection in a the three phase transformer. So for same primary applied three
phase voltage there may be different three phase secondary voltages with various
magnitudes and phases for different internal connection of the transformer.
Let's have a discussion in detail by example for better understanding.

We know that, the primary and secondary coils on any one limb have induced emfs that are
in time-phase. Let's consider two transformers of same number primary turns and the
primary windings are connected in star. The secondary number of turns per phase in both
transformers are also same. But the first transformer has star connected secondary and
other transformer has delta connected secondary. If same voltages are applied in primary of
both transformers, the secondary induced emf in each phase will be in same time-phase with
that of respective primary phase, as because the the primary and secondary coils of same
phase are wound on the same limb in the core of transformer. In first transformer, as the
secondary is star connected, the secondary line voltage is 3 times of induced voltage per
secondary phase coil. But in case of second transformer, where secondary is delta
connected, the line voltage is equal to induced voltage per secondary phase coil. If we go
through the vector diagram of secondary line voltages of both transformer, we will easily find
that there will be a clear 30o angular difference between the line voltages of these
transformers. Now, if we try to run these transformers in parallel then there will be a
circulating current flows between the transformers as because there is a phase angle
difference between their secondary line voltages. This phase difference can not be
compensated. Thus two sets of connections giving secondary voltages with a phase
displacement can not be intended for parallel operation of transformers.
The following table gives the connections for which from the view point of phase sequence
and angular divergences, transformer can be operated parallel. According to their vector
relation, all three phase transformers are divided into different vector group of transformer.
All electrical power transformers of a particular vector group can easily be operated in
parallel if they fulfill other condition for parallel operation of transformers.

Causes of Insulating Oil Deterioration

In normal service life of an oil filled equipment, the insulating oil inside the equipment is
subjected to deterioration, due to various causes. In normal service span of the equipment
there are many maintenance occasions, when due to opening of blanking or any other
 45

reason the oil comes in contact with air. The air can also be entered in the oil due to
unattended leakages in the body of the equipment.

Contact of atmospheric air with the oil causes unwanted oxidation reaction in the oil. These
oxidation reactions are further accelerated due to temperature and presence of catalysts like
solid copper, iron and other dissolved metallic materials in the oil. Temperature of oil rises
due to loading of the equipment and any flash or arc formed in oil filled space of the
equipment. As a result of these oxidation reactions the color of the oil becomes darker and
resistivity of the insulating oil decreases. At the same time acidity of the oil increases. Also
the tan delta or dielectric dissipation factor of the oil increases. That means over all
insulating properties of the oil deteriorated. Deteriorated oil also affects the other insulating
parts (mainly paper insulation) of the equipment. Deteriorated oil decreases the normal life
span of the oil immersed equipment and may increase the no load (fixed) losses of the
equipment.