Tutorial 1

Physical Properties

&

Atomic Bonding
 Physical Properties
Thermal expansion is the tendency of matter to change in volume in response to a
 
change in temperature, through heat transfer.

The coefficient of thermal expansion () describes how the size of an object
changes with a change in temperature. Specifically, it measures the fractional
change in size per degree change in temperature at a constant pressure.

Linear Expansion Equation: L = T

L - change in length
- original length
T – change in temperature (C)
 - coefficient of thermal expansion (C-1)

[Watch your units!!!]

 Physical Properties
The volumetric thermal expansion coefficient () is the most basic thermal
 
expansion coefficient, and the most relevant for fluids.

Substances that expand at the same rate in every direction are called isotropic.
For isotropic materials, the volumetric thermal expansion coefficient are
approximately three times larger than the linear thermal expansion coefficient.

Volume (or bulk) Expansion Equation: ∆V=∆T β

Where
V - change in volume
- original volume
T – change in temperature (C)
β - coefficient of volumeric expansion (K-1)
 Physical Properties
Brass lid vs Tungsten lid on a glass jar. Which will loosen when heated?
 
CTE brass = 12 x 10-6 C-1
CTE tungsten = 4.5 x 10-6 C-1
CTE glass = 9 x 10-6 C-1

L = T CTE ()

In this case, if and the change in temperature remained constant for brass
and tungsten, then change in length (L) is proportional to CTE. Therefore,
by heating the glass jar with brass lid, it will expand more in size than glass.
On the other hand, if you heat tungsten one, glass will expand more and it
will actually make the lid fit more tightly.
 Physical Properties
Consider the railway line from Sydney to Melbourne. If we approximate
 
its length to 1000km, how much longer would it get if we assume that it is
a single piece of steel and the whole line heats up from 20°C to 40°C. The
coefficient of thermal expansion for steel is 12 x 10 -6 C-1.

CTE () = L/T

Where:

ΔL = Length Change
= Original Length
ΔT = Temperature Difference (°C)
 Physical Properties
CTE () = 12 x 10-6 C-1
 
L = expansion = ?
= 1000 km
ΔT = 40 – 20 = 20°C

Hence

12 x = ΔL /1000 x 20
ΔL = 0.24 km
A length change of 0.24 km

[When quantities are multiplied or divided, the number of significant

digits in the calculated answer is equal to the number of significant
digits in the quantity with the smallest number of significant digits.]
 Sig. Figs. Counting Rules
There are different rules for counting the appropriate number of significant
digits associated with any value of data or final calculated results.

1. Non-zero digits are always significant, as are zeroes between non-zero

digits. (i.e. 15.60007 has 7 significant digits)

2. Leading zeroes before the first non-zero digit are not significant, as they
serve only as placeholders and do not represent measured data. (i.e. 0.0005
has 1 significant digit)

3. Trailing zeroes right of the decimal point are always significant, as they are
not needed as placeholders, but represent actual measured data. (i.e.
15.0000 has 6 significant digits)

4. Zeros solely used for spacing the decimal point are not significant. (i.e. 3210
has 3 significant digits)
 Sig. Figs. Calculation Rules
Addition & Subtraction Rule
When quantities are added or subtracted, the number of decimal places in the
calculated answer is equal to the number of decimal places in the quantity with the
smallest number of decimal places.

i.e. 1.234 + 567.89 [The calculated result will simply have two digits right of the
decimal point, the smaller of the two quantities used in the calculation.]

Multiplication & Division Rule:

When quantities are multiplied or divided, the number of significant digits in the
calculated answer is equal to the number of significant digits in the quantity with
the smallest number of significant digits.

i.e. 1.23 x 4567.89 [The calculated result will simply have three significant digits,
the smaller of the two quantities used in the calculation.] = 5.62 x 103
 Physical Properties
Shrink fitting is a common method of attaching gears, cylinders liners etc. to
another metal where mechanical fastening, welding etc is not practical.

Engineers machined a bush that fits into a bore in a large, heavy gearbox. They then freeze the bush using Liquid
Nitrogen and slot the bush into the hole and allow to warm up, which creates a strong resistance fit
 Physical Properties
Associated with this is the concept of an “interference fit” (how much
smaller the bore of the gear is compared to the shaft diameter).

As a rule of thumb, at least for ferrous alloys, 1μm per 1mm is used as an
interference value.

Example:
A cast iron shaft, (150mm in diameter) is to have a steel collar fitted to it.
Given CTE for steel is 11.7 x 10-6 C-1, CTE for cast iron is 11.4 x 10-6 C-1.

Calculate an acceptable inner diameter for the steel collar.

Here we will heat the collar and we want the inside diameter of the collar to
be 150 μm (or 0.15mm) less than the outside diameter of the shaft, ie. 150 –
0.15 = 149.85 mm.
 Physical Properties
Determine the temperature to which you would heat the steel collar so as to
 
perform the operation of sliding the collar onto the shaft.

 = L/T

 = 11.7 x 10-6 C-1 (steel)

L = 0.15mm
= 149.85

Rearranging and solving for ΔT gives 85.6 ºC or 86 ºC

NOTE: We have to be careful the collar does not cool down too quickly and
it sticks halfway on. Another way would be to cool the shaft down
(cryogenics)
 Physical Properties
Example:
How much coolant fluid will overflow to the reservoir after being heated in
a tank from 6º C to 92ºC?

Tank capacity: 18 litres, β=51×10-6 K-1,

Coolant volume: 18 litres, β =4.10×10-4 K-1,

∆V/V= β.∆T

[Note: containers produced from certain materials will also expand when
heated and so, in a sense, a container can also have a volumetric expansion
coefficient even if it is mostly made of empty space.]
 Physical Properties
First, we have to calculate the volume of the radiator interior when it is
 
heated from 6 to 92ºC

∆V=xβx∆T = 18 x 51x 10-6 x (92-6) = 0.079 L = 79 mL

Next, we have to determine the change in volume of the cooling fluid when
heated from6 to 92ºC

∆V=xβx∆T = 18 x 4.1x x (92-6) = 0.635 L = 635 mL

So when the temperature is heated from 6 to 92ºC, the volume of coolant

that will overflow to the reservoir will be equal to 635 ml – 79 ml = 556 ml.
 Atomic Bonding
Three types of bonding: ionic, covalent, metallic
 
 Ionic bond – attractive force existing between a positive and a negative
ion when they are brought into close proximity.

 For example

 K & Br ()
 Mg & Cl () 
 Mg & O ()
 Atomic Bonding
Three types of bonding: ionic, covalent, metallic
 
 Covalent bond – formed when pairs of electrons are shared by several
atoms and have their energies lower as a result of this.

 Group IV elements; III-V and II-VI compounds

 For example

 Carbon (C-C, C=C, CΞC)

 Carbon and oxygen (CO,
 Nitrogen (, NΞN)
 Sulfur and Oxygen ()
 Atomic Bonding
Three types of bonding: ionic, covalent, metallic

 Metallic bond – predominates in metals

 For example

 Al & Al
 Cobalt & cobalt
 Copper
 Iron
 Sodium
 Molecular Formula
a) carbon dioxide CO2 d) sulfuric acid H2SO4
b) hydrogen H2O2 e) hydrogen H2S
peroxide sulfide
c) ammonia NH3 g) carbon CCl4
tetrachloride

Familiarise yourself with these!!!