History

and
Philosophy
of
Science
• “Philosophy in its broadest sense is wondering and
being curious about the “big” or fundamental
questions that humans have grappled with throughout
the history. Questions about “what is real?”
(ontology), “what is knowable? (epistemology), “is this
just?” (ethics), and “is there an art to caring?”
(aesthetics) are considered indispensable reflections in
nursing practice.”
-Bruce, Rietze, & Lim, 2014, p. 65)
Nursing as a Science
• Science is logical, systematic, & coherent
way to solve problems and answer
questions.
• It is a collection of facts known in area and
the process used to obtain that knowledge.
Nursing and Philosophy
• Philosophy studies concepts that structure thought
processes, foundations, and presumptions.
• It is an approach for thinking about the nature of
people, the methods that should be used to create
a scientific knowledge and the ethics involved. It
denotes a perspective, implying a certain broad,
“taken for granted” assumptions.
• Epistemology – a branch of philosophy that is
concerned with the nature and scope of
knowledge. It is referred to as the ‘ theory of
knowledge’
Historical Views of the Nature
of Science
• RATIONALISM
– Rationalist epistemology (scope of knowledge)
emphasizes the importance of a priori reasoning
as the appropriate method for advancing
knowledge.
– A priori reasoning uses deductive logic by
reasoning from the cause to an effect or from
generalization to a particular instance.
– Theoretical assertions derived by deductive
reasoning are then subjected to experimental
testing to corroborate the theory.
– Theory-then-research strategy (Reynolds, 1971).
• Example:
– To reason that a lack of social support
(cause) results in hospital readmission
(effect). This causal reasoning is a
theoretical assertion until tested and
disproven. The traditional approach
proceeds by explaining hospitalization
with a systematic explanation (theory) of
a given phenomenon (Gale, 1979).
• EMPIRICISM
– The empiricist view is based on the central
idea that scientific knowledge can be
derived only from sensory experience (i.e.,
seeing, feeling, hearing facts).
– Inductive method
– Research-then-theory strategy (Reynolds,
1971)
• Example:
– Formulating differential diagnoses
– Requires collecting the facts and then
devising a list of possible theories to explain
the facts.
Early Twentieth Century Views
of Science and Theory
• Philosophers focused on the analysis of theory
structure whereas,
• Scientists focused on empirical research
• Positivism (imposed on the mind by
experience) is the philosophy of science that
information is derived from logical and
mathematical treatments and reports of
sensory experience is the exclusive source of
all authoritative knowledge.
Emergent Views of Science and Theory
in the Late 20th Century
• Empiricists argue that for science to maintain its objectivity, data
collection and analysis must be independent of a theory.
• Brown argues that the new epistemology challenged the empiricist
view of perception by acknowledging that theories play a significant
role in determining what the scientist will observe and how it will be
interpreted. He identified 3 different views of the relationship
between theories and observation:
1. Scientists are merely passive observers of occurrences in the
empirical world. Observable data are objective truth waiting to be
discovered.
2. Theories structure what the scientists perceived in the
empirical world.
3. Presupposed theories and observable data interact in the process
of scientific investigation.
Interdependence between
Theory and Research
• A theory should be judged based on the basis of
scientific consensus.
• The acceptance of scientific hypothesis through
research depends on the appraisal of the coherence of
theory
• Dubin identified when scientific consensus is necessary:
– 1. on the boundaries of the theory; the phenomenon it
addresses and what it excludes
– 2. on the logic used in constructing the theory to further
understanding from a similar perspective
– 3. that the theory fits the data collected and analyzed though
research
Issues in Nursing Philosophy
and Science Development
• Four fundamental patterns of knowledge in Nursing
(Carper, 1978)
– Empirical knowledge
– Esthetic knowledge
– Moral knowledge
– Personal knowledge

• 1980s - Further acceptance of nursing theory and its

incorporation in the nursing curricula; publication of
several nursing journals
• 1990s - Nursing as a basic science, an applied science,
or a practical science
 Issues in Nursing Philosophy
and Science Development
• Progress in the Discipline of Nursing (Meleis)
– Practice
– Education and Administration
– Research
– Development of Nursing Theory

• Peplau developed the first theory of nursing practice

in her book, Interpersonal Relations in Nursing (1952)
• Journal of Nursing Research (1952)
• 1960s and 1970s – analysis and debate on he
metatheoretical issues related to theory development
Issues in Nursing Philosophy
and Science Development
• Postpositivism focuses on discovering the patterns
that may describe a phenomena.
• Interpretive paradigm tends to promote
understanding by addressing the meanings the
participants social interaction that emphasize
situation, context and multiple cognitive constructions
that individuals create on everyday events.
• Critical paradigm for knowledge development in
nursing , provides framework for inquiring about the
interaction between the social, political, economic,
gender and cultural factors and experiences of health
and illness.