UNIT FOUR (4)

MOTIVATION

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 Determinants of Performance

Person:
Ability Motivation Accurate
Role
Perceptions

Performance
Situation:
Environmental
(Constraints and
Facilitators)
Fundamentals of Motivation

• Motivation comes from the Latin movere, “to

move”
• Motivation requires:

– arousal to initiate behavior toward a goal

– direction to properly focus that behavior

– persistence to ultimately attain the goal

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Fundamentals of Motivation

• The motivation “toolkit” contains:

- content or need theories to help us understand

what people want
- process theories to understand the motivation
process

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 What is Motivation?

Motivation is a psychological drive that directs a

person toward an objective

Motives are the “whys” of

behavior
Some Theories Of Motivation

Need (or Content) Theories

–Maslow’s Need Hierarchy

–Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory

–Alderfer’s ERG Theory

–McClelland’s Manifest Needs

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Some Theories Of Motivation

Process Theories

–Learning Theory

–Goal Setting Theory

–Equity Theory

–Expectancy Theory
 The Need Satisfaction Process
Need
Deficiency

Search for
Goal
Potential Need-
Attainment or
Satisfying
Frustration
Goal

Perception of
Attempt to Potential Need-
Attain Goal Satisfying Goal
 Maslow’s Needs
• Physiological: the need for food, sleep, water, air, and sex

• Security: the need for safety, family, stability, and economic

security

• Social or affiliation: the need to belong, to interact with

others, to have friends, and to love and be loved

• Esteem: the need for respect and recognition of others

• Self-actualization: the need to realize one’s potential, to grow,

to be creative, and to accomplish
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Self-
Actualization

Esteem

Social and

Love
Safety

Physiological
 Maslow’s Hypotheses
•
• Needs cluster into five sets

• Needs at the lowest unsatisfied level are most salient

• A satisfied need is not a motivator

• There is a hierarchy of successive prepotency -- once

needs at a given level are satisfied, those at the next
higher level become most important
Herzberg’s Two Factor Theory

• Based on interviews with 203 engineers and

accountants
• Individuals were asked to reveal two separate
job-related events in which their work
satisfaction had improved or declined

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 Herzberg’s Two Factor Theory
(cont.)
• Findings suggested that there were two completely
separate sets of factors, one leads to feelings of
satisfaction, the other leads to dissatisfaction
• Motivator Factors: Pertained to the content of the job;
e.g. career advancement, recognition, achievement, sense
of responsibility

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 Herzberg’s Two Factor Theory
(cont.)

• Hygiene Factors: Stemmed from the context in

which the job was performed, e.g. job security,
company policies, interpersonal relations,
working conditions

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 Herzberg’s Two Factor Theory
(cont.)

• When present, motivator factors will lead

directly to employees’ feelings of satisfaction,
while when not present, they were said to lead
to feelings of “no satisfaction” or a neutral state

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 Herzberg’s Two Factor Theory
(cont.)

• When not present, hygiene factors lead to

dissatisfaction of employees, while even if
present they were said to be incapable of
motivating workers to feel satisfied in their jobs

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 Examples of Motivator and Hygiene
Factors
Motivator Factors
(Sources of Job Satisfaction
and Motivation)
Challenge of the work
itself
Responsibility Recognition
Achievement
Job advancement and
professional growth
Hygiene Factors
(Sources of Job Dissatisfaction;
Neutral to Motivation)
Physical working conditions
Company policies Quality of
supervision Coworker
relationships Salary
Status
Job security
Benefits, including work habits
and time management
 Alderfer’s Sets of Needs (ERG)

• Existence -- all forms of material and physical desires

• Relatedness -- all needs involving relationships with

significant other persons

• Growth -- All needs involving a person making creative

and productive efforts on the self and the environment

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Alderfer’s ERG Theory

Growth Needs
1.Internal Self-Esteem Needs
2.Self-Actualization Needs

Relatedness Needs
•Social Needs
1.Social Esteem Needs
2.Interpersonal Safety Needs

Existence Needs
1.Physiological Needs
2.Material Safety Needs
Growth Opportunities Satisfying
• Challenging Job • Autonomy
• Creativity • Interesting Work Existence,
• Organizational Advancement • Achievement
• Responsibility • Participation Relatedness
, and
Growth
Relatedness Opportunities
• Friendship • Quality Supervision Needs
• Interpersonal Security • Work Teams
• Athletic Teams • Social Events
• Social Recognition

Existence Opportunities
• Heat • Air Conditioning • Clean Air
• Lighting • Rest Rooms • Drinking Water
• Base Salary • Cafeteria • Safe Conditions
• Insurance • Job Security • No Layoffs
• Retirement • Health Programs • Time Off
 Alderfer’s ERG Theory

SA Growth
Esteem

Love (Social) Relatedness

Safety & Security
Existence
Physiological
McClelland’s Manifest Needs

• Need for Achievement (nAch): The need to do well no

matter what goal is pursued.

• Need for Affiliation (nAff): The desire to establish and

maintain friendly and warm relations with other people.

• Need for Power (nPow): The desire to control other

people, to influence their behavior, and to be responsible
for them.

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McClelland’s Manifest Needs

• Need for Achievement - a manifest (easily perceived)

need that concerns individuals’ issues of excellence,
competition, challenging goals, persistence, and
overcoming difficulties
• Need for Power - a manifest (easily perceived) need that
concerns an individual’s need to make an impact on
others, influence others, change people or events, and
make a difference in life

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McClelland’s Manifest Needs

• Need for Affiliation - a manifest (easily perceived) need

that concerns an individual’s need to establish and
maintain warm, close, intimate relationships with other
people

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 A Graphic Comparison of Four
Content Approaches to Motivation
Maslow Herzberg Alderfer McClelland

Self- The work itself Growth Need for

actualization -Responsibility achievement
Esteem -Advancement
Higher Need for power
order needs
Motivators -Growth
Belongingness, Achievement Relatedness
social, and love
Recognition
Need for
Quality of inter- affiliation
Safety and personal relations
security among peers, with Existence
Basic Hygiene
needs conditions
supervisors
Physiological
Job security
Salary
Implications of Need Theories

• Different people have different needs structures as well as

different needs that may be salient at a given time.

• While satisfaction occurs when needs are met, motivation

flows from lack of

• A reward may satisfy multiple needs.

• Needs appear to form two or three clusters.

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 Equity Theory (Adams 1963)

• People develop beliefs about what is a fair reward for

one’ job contribution - an exchange
• People compare their exchanges with their employer to
exchanges with others-insiders and outsiders called
referents
• If an employee believes his treatment is inequitable,
compared to others, he or she will be motivated to do
something about it -- that is, seek justice.

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Is versus Ir
Os Or

I = Inputs - employee’s contribution to

employer

R = Referent - comparison person

S = Subject the employee who is judging

fairness of the exchange
Motivational Theory of Social
Exchange

Person Comparison
other
Equity Outcomes = Outcomes
Inputs Inputs

Negative Outcomes < Outcomes

Inequity Inputs Inputs

Positive Outcomes > Outcomes

Inequity Inputs Inputs
Equity Theory- Exchange Scenarios

Case 1: Equity -- pay allocation is perceived to be to be

fair - motivation is sustained
Case 2: Inequity -- Underpayment. Employee is
motivated to seek justice. Work motivation is disrupted.
Case 3: Inequity - Overpayment. Could be problem.
Inefficient. In other cultures employees lose face.

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 Consequences of Inequity
• The employee is motivated to have an equitable exchange with
the employer.
• To reduce inequity, employee may…

◦ Reduce inputs (reduce effort)

◦ Try to influence manager to increase outcomes (complain, file
grievance, etc.)
◦ Try to influence co-workers’ inputs (criticize others
outcomes or inputs)
◦ Withdraw emotionally - or physically (engage in
absenteeism, tardiness, or quit)

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 Equity Theory Application

• Develop tools to pay people in proportion to their

contributions
 Let employees know who their pay referents are in the
pay system: identify pay competitors and internal
pay comparators.
 Strive for consistent pay allocations
 Monitor internal pay structure and position in the labor
market for consistency.

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 Equity Theory Application

• People will first try to maximize valued outcomes.

• People will be reluctant to increase inputs that are
difficult or costly to change.
• People will be more resistant to changing perceptions of
their own inputs and outcomes than to changing
perceptions of their comparison other’s inputs and
outcomes.
• People will leave the situation only when inequity is great
and other means of reducing it are not available.
• People will be reluctant to change their comparison
others.

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 Expectancy Theory

Developed by Victor Vroom,

expectancy theory defines motivation as a process
governing choices among alternative forms of
voluntary activity.

The components of expectancy theory

are instrumentalities, valences, and expectancies.
 Expectancy Theory of
Motivation: Key Constructs
Valence - value or importance
placed on a particular reward

Expectancy - belief that

effort leads to performance

Instrumentality - belief that

performance is related to rewards
 Expectancy Theory

Expectancy Instrumentality Valence

(how well the (how well the (the value that

Motivational person believes person believes the person
= X X
Force he or she can that performance attaches to the
perform the will lead to certain outcome)
task) outcomes)
 Expectancy Model of Motivation

Effort
Effort Performance Reward

Perceived effort– Perceived Perceived

performance performance– reward value of reward
probability probability

“If I work hard, “What rewards “What rewards

will I get the job will I get when do I value?”
done?” the job is well done?”
 The Linkage of Effort to a First-
Order Outcome
Role
Perceptions Ability

Effort First-Order
Outcome

Situational
Constraints
 Managerial Implications of Expectancy
Theory
• Determine the outcomes employees value.
• Identify good performance so appropriate behaviors can
be rewarded.
• Make sure employees can achieve targeted performance
levels.
• Link desired outcomes to targeted levels of performance.
• Make sure changes in outcomes are large enough to
motivate high
• Monitor the reward system for inequities

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Goal-Setting Theory of Motivation

Key issues and principles in the goal-setting process:

Set specific goals.
Set challenging goals.
Build goal acceptance and commitment.
Clarify goal priorities.
Provide feedback on goal accomplishment.
Reward goal accomplishment.

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 Goal-Setting Theory of Motivation
◦ Developed by Edwin Locke.

◦ Properly set and well-managed task goals can be

highly motivating.

◦ Motivational effects of task goals:

 Provide direction to people in their work.

 Clarify performance expectations.

 Establish a frame of reference for feedback.

 Provide a foundation for behavioral self-

management.

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Goal-Setting Theory of Motivation

◦ Participation in goal setting


unlocks the motivational potential of goal setting.

management by objectives (MBO) promotes
participation.

when participation is not possible, workers will
respond positively if supervisory trust and support
exist.

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 Reinforcement/Learning Theory of
Motivation

◦ Reinforcement theory focuses on the impact of external

environmental consequences on behavior.
◦ Law of effect — impact of type of consequence on
future behavior.
◦ Operant conditioning:
 Developed by B.F. Skinner.
 Applies law of effect to control behavior by
manipulating its consequences.

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 Reinforcement/Learning Theory of
Motivation
◦ Positive reinforcement
 Increases the frequency of a behavior through the
contingent presentation of a pleasant consequence.
◦ Negative reinforcement
 Increases the frequency of a behavior through the
contingent removal of an unpleasant consequence.

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 Reinforcement/Learning Theory of
Motivation
◦ Punishment
 Decreases the frequency of a behavior through the
contingent presentation of an unpleasant consequence.
◦ Extinction
 Decreases the frequency of a behavior through the
contingent removal of an pleasant consequence.

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 Reinforcement/Learning Theory of
Motivation
Successful implementation of positive reinforcement
is based on

◦Law of contingent reinforcement —

 Reward delivered only if desired behavior is exhibited.

◦Law of immediate reinforcement —

 More immediate the delivery of a reward, the more

reinforcement value it has.

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 Reinforcement/Learning Theory of
Motivation
◦ Guidelines for using positive reinforcement:

◦ Clearly identify desired work behaviors.

◦ Maintain a diverse inventory of rewards.
◦ Inform everyone about what must be done to get rewards.
◦ Recognize individual differences when allocating rewards.
◦ Follow the laws of immediate and contingent
reinforcement.

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Reinforcement/Learning Theory of
Motivation
◦ Guidelines for using punishment:

◦ Tell the person what is being done wrong.

◦ Tell the person what is being done right.
◦ Match the punishment to the behavior.
◦ Administer punishment in private.
◦ Follow laws of immediate and contingent
reinforcement.

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Figure 14.5 Applying Reinforcement Strategies:
Case of Total Quality Management.

MICHAEL KWAME MICKSON

 Reinforcement/Learning Theory of
Motivation

◦ Schedules of reinforcement
◦ Continuous reinforcement administers a reward each
time a desired behavior occurs.
• Intermittent reinforcement rewards behavior only
periodically.
◦ Acquisition of behavior is quicker with continuous
reinforcement.

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 Reinforcement/Learning Theory of
Motivation

◦ Schedules of reinforcement
◦ Behavior acquired under an intermittent schedule is more
permanent.

◦ Shaping is the creation of a new behavior by positive

reinforcement of successive approximations to it.

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