EE462L, Spring 2014

DC−DC Buck Converter

1
 !
Objective – to efficiently reduce DC voltage
The DC equivalent of an AC transformer

Iin Iout

+ +
DC−DC Buck
Vin Converter Vout

− −

Lossless objective: Pin = Pout, which means that VinIin = VoutIout and

Vout I in

Vin I out
2
Here is an example of an inefficient DC−DC
converter
R1 The load

+ +

Vin R2 Vout

− −
R2
Vout  Vin 
R1  R2
R2 Vout
 
R1  R2 Vin

If Vin = 39V, and Vout = 13V, efficiency η is only 0.33

Unacceptable except in very low power applications

3
 Taken from “Course Overview” PPT

Another method – lossless conversion of

!
39Vdc to average 13Vdc
Stereo Switch closed
voltage Switch open
39
+
39Vdc Rstereo
–
0

Switch state, Stereo voltage DT

Closed, 39Vdc T

Open, 0Vdc

If the duty cycle D of the switch is 0.33, then the average

voltage to the expensive car stereo is 39 ● 0.33 = 13Vdc. This
is lossless conversion, but is it acceptable?

4
 Taken from “Course Overview” PPT

Convert 39Vdc to 13Vdc, cont.

Try adding a large C in parallel with the load to
+ control ripple. But if the C has 13Vdc, then
39Vdc C Rstereo when the switch closes, the source current
– spikes to a huge value and burns out the
switch.

L
Try adding an L to prevent the huge
current spike. But now, if the L has
+
current when the switch attempts to
39Vdc C Rstereo open, the inductor’s current momentum
– and resulting Ldi/dt burns out the switch.

lossless
L
By adding a “free wheeling” diode, the
+ switch can open and the inductor current
39Vdc C Rstereo can continue to flow. With high-
– frequency switching, the load voltage
ripple can be reduced to a small value.
A DC-DC Buck Converter

5
 !
Taken from “Waveforms and Definitions” PPT

C’s and L’s operating in periodic steady-state

Examine the current passing through a capacitor that is operating
in periodic steady state. The governing equation is
t
dv ( t ) 1 o t
i(t )  C
dt
which leads to v ( t )  v ( to ) 
C  i ( t )dt
to
Since the capacitor is in periodic steady state, then the voltage at time t o is the same as the voltage one
period T later, so

t
1 o T
C 
v ( to  T )  v ( to ), or v ( to  T )  v ( to )  0  i ( t )dt
to
to T
The conclusion is that  i ( t )dt  0 which means that
to
the average current through a capacitor operating in periodic steady state is zero

6
 Taken from “Waveforms and Definitions” PPT

Now, an inductor
!
Examine the voltage across an inductor that is operating in
periodic steady state. The governing equation is
t
di ( t ) 1 o t
v(t )  L
dt
which leads to i ( t )  i ( to ) 
L  v ( t )dt
to
Since the inductor is in periodic steady state, then the voltage at time t o is the same as the voltage one
period T later, so

t
1 o T
L 
i ( to  T )  i ( to ), or i ( to  T )  i ( to )  0  v ( t )dt
to
to T
The conclusion is that  v ( t )dt  0 which means that
to
the average voltage across an inductor operating in periodic steady state is zero

7
 Taken from “Waveforms and Definitions” PPT

KVL and KCL in periodic steady-state

!
Since KVL and KCL apply at any instance, then they must also be valid
in averages. Consider KVL,

 v(t )  0, v1 ( t )  v2 ( t )  v3 ( t )    v N ( t )  0
Around loop

t t t t t
1 o T 1 o T 1 o T 1 o T 1 o T
T  T  T  T  T 
v1 ( t )dt  v2 ( t )dt  v3 ( t )dt    v N ( t )dt  (0)dt  0
to to to to to

V1avg  V2avg  V3avg    V Navg  0 KVL applies in the average sense

The same reasoning applies to KCL

 i (t )  0, i1 ( t )  i2 ( t )  i3 ( t )    i N ( t )  0
Out of node

I1avg  I 2avg  I 3avg    I Navg  0 KCL applies in the average sense

8
 Capacitors and Inductors !
dv ( t )
In capacitors: i(t )  C The voltage cannot change instantaneously
dt

Capacitors tend to keep the voltage constant (voltage “inertia”). An ideal

capacitor with infinite capacitance acts as a constant voltage source.
Thus, a capacitor cannot be connected in parallel with a voltage source
or a switch (otherwise KVL would be violated, i.e. there will be a
short-circuit)
di ( t )
In inductors: v ( t )  L The current cannot change instantaneously
dt

Inductors tend to keep the current constant (current “inertia”). An ideal

inductor with infinite inductance acts as a constant current source.
Thus, an inductor cannot be connected in series with a current source
or a switch (otherwise KCL would be violated)

9
 Buck converter
!
• Assume large C so that
+ vL –
Vout has very low ripple
iL Iout
iin
L +
• Since V
Vin C Vout out has very low
iC
– ripple, then assume Iout
has very low ripple

What do we learn from inductor voltage and capacitor

current in the average sense?
+0V–
iin Iout Iout

L +
Vin C Vout
0A
–
10
The input/output equation for DC-DC converters
usually comes by examining inductor voltages

+ (Vin – Vout) –
iin iL Iout

L +
Switch closed for Vin Vout
C
DT seconds (iL – Iout) –

Reverse biased, thus the

diode is open

diL diL diL Vin  Vout

vL  L , vL  Vin  Vout , Vin  Vout  L , 
dt dt dt L
for DT seconds

Note – if the switch stays closed, then Vout = Vin 11

 Switch open for (1 − D)T seconds

– Vout +
iL Iout

L +
Vin C Vout
(iL – Iout) –

iL continues to flow, thus the diode is closed. This

is the assumption of “continuous conduction” in the
inductor which is the normal operating condition.

diL diL diL  Vout

vL  L , vL  Vout ,  Vout  L , 
dt dt dt L
for (1−D)T seconds

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 !
Since the average voltage across L is zero

VLavg  D  Vin  Vout   1  D     Vout   0

DVin  D  Vout  Vout  D  Vout

The input/output equation becomes Vout  DVin

From power balance, Vin I in  Vout I out , so

I in Note – even though iin is not constant

I out  (i.e., iin has harmonics), the input power is
D
still simply Vin • Iin because Vin has no
13
harmonics
 Examine the inductor current

diL Vin  Vout

Switch closed, v L  Vin  Vout , 
dt L

diL  Vout
Switch open, vL  Vout , 
dt L

 Vout From geometry, Iavg = Iout is halfway

iL A / sec
L
Imax between Imax and Imin
Iavg = Iout ΔI Periodic – finishes
Vin  Vout
A / sec a period where it
Imin L
started

DT (1 − D)T

T
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Effect of raising and lowering Iout while
holding Vin, Vout, f, and L constant
iL

ΔI
Raise Iout

ΔI

Lower Iout
ΔI

• ΔI is unchanged

• Lowering Iout (and, therefore, Pout ) moves the circuit

toward discontinuous operation
15
Effect of raising and lowering f while
holding Vin, Vout, Iout, and L constant
iL

Lower f

Raise f

• Slopes of iL are unchanged

• Lowering f increases ΔI and moves the circuit toward

discontinuous operation
16
Effect of raising and lowering L while
holding Vin, Vout, Iout and f constant

iL
Lower L

Raise L

• Lowering L increases ΔI and moves the circuit toward

discontinuous operation

17
 Taken from “Waveforms and Definitions” PPT

RMS of common periodic waveforms, cont.

!
Sawtooth
V

T 2 2T2
2 1  V  V 2 V 3T
Vrms    t  dt   t dt  t
T T  3 3 0
0 T 0 3T

V
Vrms 
3
18
 Taken from “Waveforms and Definitions” PPT

RMS of common periodic waveforms, cont.

!
Using the power concept, it is easy to reason that the following waveforms
would all produce the same average power to a resistor, and thus their rms
values are identical and equal to the previous example

V V 0

0 0 -V

V V V

0 0 0

V
V
Vrms 
0 3
19
 Taken from “Waveforms and Definitions” PPT

RMS of common periodic waveforms, cont. !

Now, consider a useful example, based upon a waveform that is often seen in
DC-DC converter currents. Decompose the waveform into its ripple, plus its
minimum value.

i (t )
the ripple
 Imax  Imin 
i (t )
Imax 0
I avg
Imin
= +
the minimum value
Imin
I avg 
 Imax  Imin 
2 0

20
 Taken from “Waveforms and Definitions” PPT

RMS of common periodic waveforms, cont.

2
I rms 
 Avg  i (t )  I min  2 
2
I rms 
 Avg i2 (t )  2i (t )  I min  I min
2

2
I rms  
 Avg i2 (t )  2 I min  Avg  i (t )  I min
2

2
I rms 
 I max  I min  2
 2I 
 I max  I min   I 2
min min
3 2

Define I PP  I max  I min

2
2 I PP 2
I rms   I min I PP  I min
3
21
 Taken from “Waveforms and Definitions” PPT

RMS of common periodic waveforms, cont.

I
Recognize that I min  I avg  PP
2

2 2
2 I PP  I PP   I PP 
I rms    I avg   I PP   I avg  
3  2   2 

2 2 2
2 I PP I PP 2 I PP
I rms   I avg I PP   I avg  I avg I PP 
3 2 4

2 2 I avg 
 I max  I min 
2
I rms 
I PP

I PP 2
 I avg i (t ) 2
3 4
I avg I PP  I max  I min
2
2 2 I PP
I rms  I avg 
12

22
 Inductor current rating

2
I Lrms 2
 I avg 
1 2
12
2
I pp  I out 
1
12
 
I 2

Max impact of ΔI on the rms current occurs at the boundary of

continuous/discontinuous conduction, where ΔI =2Iout
iL
2Iout
Iavg = Iout ΔI
0

1
2
I Lrms 2
 I out   2I out  2  4 I out
2
12 3
Use max
2
I Lrms  I out
3
23
 Capacitor current and current rating
iL Iout

L
C
(iL – Iout)

iC = (iL – Iout) Note – raising f or L, which lowers

Iout ΔI, reduces the capacitor current
0
ΔI
−Iout

Max rms current occurs at the boundary of continuous/discontinuous

conduction, where ΔI =2Iout Use max

1 I
2
I Crms 2
 I avg   2 I out  2  02  1 I out
2
I Crms  out
12 3 3

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MOSFET and diode currents and current ratings
iL Iout
iin

L
C
(iL – Iout)

2Iout
Iout
0

2Iout
Iout
0

Use max

2
Take worst case D for each I rms  I out
3
25
 !
Worst-case load ripple voltage

iC = (iL – Iout)
Iout C charging
0
T/2
−Iout

During the charging period, the C voltage moves from the min to the max.
The area of the triangle shown above gives the peak-to-peak ripple voltage.

1 T
Q 2  2  I out T  I out I out
V    
C C 4C 4Cf

Raising f or L reduces the load voltage ripple

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 Voltage ratings
iin iL Iout
C sees Vout
Switch Closed L +
Vin C Vout
iC
–

Diode sees Vin

MOSFET sees Vin

iL Iout

Switch Open L +
Vin C Vout
iC
–

• Diode and MOSFET, use 2Vin

27
• Capacitor, use 1.5Vout
 !
There is a 3rd state – discontinuous
Iout
MOSFET

L +
Vin C Vout
DIODE Iout –

• Occurs for light loads, or low operating frequencies, where

the inductor current eventually hits zero during the switch-
open state
• The diode opens to prevent backward current flow
• The small capacitances of the MOSFET and diode, acting in
parallel with each other as a net parasitic capacitance,
interact with L to produce an oscillation
• The output C is in series with the net parasitic capacitance,
but C is so large that it can be ignored in the oscillation
phenomenon

28
Inductor voltage showing oscillation during
discontinuous current operation

vL = (Vin – Vout)

Switch
closed

vL = –Vout

Switch open

 650kHz. With L = 100µH, this corresponds

to net parasitic C = 0.6nF
29
 Onset of the discontinuous state
!
 Vout
A / sec
iL L
2Iout
Iavg = Iout
0
(1 − D)T

Vout Vout 1  D 
2 I out   1  D  T 
Lonset Lonset f

Vout 1 D 
Lonset 
2 I out f
Then, considering the worst case (i.e., D → 0),
use max
Vout
L guarantees continuous conduction
2 I out f
use min 30
 Impedance matching !

Iin Iout = Iin / D

+ +
DC−DC Buck V
Source Rload  out
Vin Converter Vout = DVin I out
− −

Iin

+
Equivalent from Requiv
Vin source perspective

−
Vout So, the buck converter
V D Vout R makes the load
Requiv  in    load resistance look larger
I in I out  D I out  D 2 D2 to the source 31
Example of drawing maximum power from
solar panel

PV Station 13, Bright Sun, Dec. 6, 2002

6
Pmax is approx. 130W
Isc 5 (occurs at 29V, 4.5A)
4
For max power from
I - amps

3 panels at this solar

2
intensity level, attach
29V
1 Rload   6.44
4.5 A
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
But as the sun conditions
V(panel) - volts
Voc change, the “max power
resistance” must also
I-V characteristic of 6.44Ω resistor change

32
 Connect a 2Ω resistor directly, extract only 55W !
PV Station 13, Bright Sun, Dec. 6, 2002

6 55W
130W
5

or
4

ist
I - amps

res
3
2Ω
4Ω or
2
. 4
6 s is t
1 re

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45

V(panel) - volts

To draw maximum power (130W), connect a buck converter between the

panel and the load resistor, and use D to modify the equivalent load
resistance seen by the source so that maximum power is transferred
R Rload 2
Requiv  load , D    0.56
D2 Requiv 6.44 33
 Buck converter for solar applications
The panel needs a ripple-free current to stay on the max power point.
Wiring inductance reacts to the current switching with large voltage spikes.

+ vL –
iL Iout
ipanel

L +
Vpanel C Vout
iC
–

Put a capacitor here to provide the

ripple current required by the
opening and closing of the MOSFET

In that way, the panel current can be ripple

free and the voltage spikes can be controlled

We use a 10µF, 50V, 10A high-frequency bipolar (unpolarized) capacitor

34
 BUCK DESIGN

Worst-Case Component Ratings Comparisons

for DC-DC Converters Our components
9A 250V 5.66A 200V, 250V 16A, 20A
Output Diode and
Converter Input Inductor Capacitor Output Capacitor Diode and MOSFET
Type Current Voltage Current (Arms) MOSFET Current
(Arms) Voltage (Arms)
Buck 2 1.5 Vout 1 2 Vin 2
I out I out I out
3 3 3

10A 40V 10A 40V 10A

Likely worst-case buck situation

Our L. 100µH, 9A
Our C. 1500µF, 250V, 5.66A p-p
Our D (Diode). 200V, 16A
Our M (MOSFET). 250V, 20A
35
 BUCK DESIGN

Comparisons of Output Capacitor Ripple Voltage

Converter Type Volts (peak-to-peak)
Buck I out 10A
0.033V 4Cf

1500µF 50kHz

Our L. 100µH, 9A
Our C. 1500µF, 250V, 5.66A p-p
Our D (Diode). 200V, 16A
Our M (MOSFET). 250V, 20A
36
 BUCK DESIGN

Minimum Inductance Values Needed to

Guarantee Continuous Current
Converter Type For Continuous For Continuous
Current in the Input Current in L2
Inductor
Buck V 40V
L  out –
200µH 2 I out f

2A 50kHz

Our L. 100µH, 9A
Our C. 1500µF, 250V, 5.66A p-p
Our D (Diode). 200V, 16A
Our M (MOSFET). 250V, 20A
37