4.

Transformation By Steam
By Rajesh J
Words to Know

 Condenser: An instrument for cooling air or gases.

 Cylinder: The chamber of an engine in which the piston moves.
 Piston: A sliding piece that is moved by or moves against fluid pressure within a cylindrical vessel or
chamber.
 Turbine: An engine that moves in a circular motion when force, such as moving water, is applied to its series
of baffles (thin plates or screens) radiating from a central shaft.
Steam Engine

 A steam engine is a machine that converts the heat energy of steam into mechanical energy. A steam engine
passes its steam into a cylinder, where it then pushes a piston back and forth. It is with this piston movement
that the engine can do mechanical work.
Steam Engine- Thomas Savery

 The first steam-powered machine was built in 1698 by the English military engineer Thomas
Savery (c. 1650–1715). His invention, designed to pump water out of coal mines, was known as the Miner's Friend.
The machine, which had no moving parts, consisted of a simple boiler—a steam chamber whose valves were
located on the surface—and a pipe leading to the water in the mine below.
Steam Engine- Thomas Newcomen

 Thomas Newcomen (1663–1729) an English engineer and partner of Savery named improved the steam
pump. He increased efficiency by setting a moving piston inside a cylinder, a
technique still in use today.
Thomas Newcomen- Video
Steam Engine- James Watt

 The most important improvement in steam engine design was

brought about by the Scottish engineer James Watt (1736–
1819).
James Watt Engine- Video
APPLICATIONS OF STEAM

 Mining
 Manufacturing
 Travel/Transport
 Electricity
 Agriculture
 Heating
 Humidification
 Drying
Activity

 Design an engine.
 Particles

 Solid: In solids molecules are closely packed. It is characterized by structural

rigidity and resistance to changes of shape or volume.
 Liquid : It is the only state with a definite volume but no fixed shape.
A liquid is made up of tiny vibrating particles of matter, such as atoms, held
together by intermolecular bonds.
 Gases : It has no definite volume and shape A pure gas may be made up of
individual atoms (e.g. a noble gas like neon), elemental molecules made from
one type of atom (e.g. oxygen), or compound molecules made from a variety
of atoms (e.g. carbon dioxide).
 Plasma: It is a gas in which the atoms are ionized, meaning there are free
negatively charged electrons and positively charged ions
Brownian Motion

 The term “Brownian motion” describes the random movement

of microscopic particles suspended in a liquid or gas
 It was named for the Scottish botanist Robert Brown.
 Robert Brown noticed the wandering motion of pollen grains in
water. In 1827.
Brownian Motion- Video
Energy of particles

 The total kinetic and potential energies of all the atoms or molecules in a material is called its

internal energy.
 If a hot material is in contact with a cold one, the hot one cools down and looses its internal energy, while the
cold one heats up and gains internal energy.
 The energy transferred is known as heat.
 The term thermal energy is often used for both internal energy and heat.
Energy Transformation

 The chemical energy contained in the atoms and molecules in the coal and air is transformed into heat
energy that boils water and makes steam.
 The energy in the steam is transformed into mechanical energy.
 This mechanical energy is transformed into electrical energy.
Law of Conservation of Energy

 In physics, the law of Conservation of Energy states that the total energy of an isolated system remains
constant — it is said to be conserved over time.
 This law means that energy can neither be created nor destroyed; rather, it can only be transformed from one
form to another.
Measuring Temperature

A temperature scale is a range of numbers for measuring the level of hotness.

 Celsius Temperature Scale
 Kelvin Temperature Scale
Conversion


Celsius to Kelvin: K = C + 273

Celsius to Fahrenheit: F = 1.8 C + 32
 Triple Point

The temperature and pressure at which the solid, liquid, and vapour phases of a pure substance can
coexist in equilibrium, is the triple point
The triple point of pure water is at 0.01°C (273.16K, 32.01°F) and 4.58 mm (611.2Pa) of mercury.
Thermometers

 Temperature is measured using thermometers.

 Types of thermometers:
 Alcohol / Mercury Thermometer
 Thermistor Thermometer
 Thermocouple Thermometer
Alcohol/Mercury Thermometer

 As the temperature rises, the mercury/coloured alcohol is

pushed up through the constriction by the force of
expansion.
 Mercury thermometers cover a wide temperature range
from −37 to 356 °C 
 Alcohol thermometer covers temperature range of −200
°C to 78 °C, is highly dependent upon the type of
alcohol used.
Thermistor Thermometer

 A thermistor is a resistance thermometer, or a resistor whose resistance is dependent on temperature. The

term is a combination of "thermal" and "resistor“.
 Thermocouple Thermometer

 The working principle of thermocouple is based on three effects,

discovered by Seebeck, Peltier and Thomson.
 Peltier effect: As per the Peltier effect, when two dissimilar metals are
joined together to form two junctions, emf is generated within the circuit
due to the different temperatures of the two junctions of the circuit.
 Range: -200 oC to 1100 oC
Expansions of Solids and Liquids

 Expansion of Liquid is used in thermometers.

 Expansion of Solid is used in Bimetal Thermostats.
Heating Gases – Gas Laws

 The Pressure-Volume Law (Boyle's Law)

 The Temperature-Volume Law (Charles' Law)
 The Pressure-Temperature Law (Gay-Lussac's Law)
 The Volume-Amount Law (Avogadro's Law)
The Pressure-Volume Law (Boyle's Law)

volume of a given amount of gas held at

 Boyle's law or the pressure-volume law states that the

constant temperature varies inversely with the applied pressure when the temperature
and mass are constant.

 if the initial volume was 500 mL at a pressure of 760 torr, when the volume is compressed to 450 mL,
what is the pressure? 
 Note : 1 torr = 133.322 pascals
The Temperature-Volume Law (Charles' Law)

 This law states that the volume of a given amount of gas held at constant pressure is directly
proportional to the Kelvin temperature.

V  T
The Pressure-Temperature Law (Gay-Lussac's Law)

 This law states that the pressure of a given amount of gas held at constant volume is directly
proportional to the Kelvin temperature.

P  T
The Volume-Amount Law (Avogadro's Law)

 Gives the relationship between volume and amount when pressure and temperature are held constant. 
Remember amount is measured in moles. 
 If the amount of gas in a container is increased, the volume increases.  If the amount of gas in a
container is decreased, the volume decreases.

V  n
The Ideal Gas Law

PV = nTR
Where,

n is the number of moles and

R is a constant called the universal gas constant and is equal to approximately 0.0821 L-atm
K−1 mol−1

8.314 m 3 Pa K−1 mol−1

8.314 L kPa K −1 mol−1

Energy Transfer

 Conduction
 Convection
 Radiation
Using Convection
Emitters and Absorbers
Evaporation

 Evaporation is the process of a substance in a liquid state changing to a gaseous state due to an increase in
temperature and/or pressure. 
 Following ways to increase the rate of evaporation:
A. Increase the temperature
B. Increase the surface area
C. Reduce the humidity
D. Blow air across the surface
Cooling effect of Evaporation
Specific Heat Capacity

 The specific heat is the amount of heat per unit mass required to raise the temperature by one degree
Celsius.

E=mc▲T
Problem based on specific heat capacity

 What is the heat in Joules required to raise the temperature of 25 grams of water from 0 °C to 100 °C? What
is the heat in calories? ( specific heat of water = 4.18 J/g·°C)

 Note : 1 calorie = 4.18 Joules

Latent Heat

 Latent Heat is the heat required to convert a solid into a liquid or vapour, or a liquid into a vapour, without
change of temperature.

A- Latent heat of fusion

B- Latent heat of vaporisation
Latent heat of fusion

 The specific latent heat of fusion, L, of a substance is the heat needed to change a mass of 1 kg of the

substance from a solid at its melting point into liquid at the same temperature.
 Ice has a specific latent heat of fusion of 330 000 J/kg. This means that the 330 000 joules of energy must be
transferred to change each kilogram of ice into liquid water at the same temperature (0 0 C)
 Energy transferred (Q) = mass(m) × specific latent heat (L)

 Ex: Calculate the specific heat of fusion of ice if 100 watts heater is switched for 300 seconds. By weighing
the water collected in the beaker, it is found that 0.10 kg of ice has melted.
 Ans: L = 300 000J/kg
Latent heat of vaporisation

 Latent heat of vaporization is a physical property of a substance. When a material in liquid state is given energy,
it changes its phase from liquid to vapour; the energy absorbed in this process is called heat of vaporization.
 Water has a specific latent heat of vaporisation of 2 300 000 J/kg. This means that the 2 300 000 joules of energy
must be transferred to change each kilogram of liquid water into steam at the same temperature (100 0 C)

 In an experiment the can contains boiling water. When the 100 watts heater has been switched on for 500 seconds,
the change in the mass balance’s reading shows that 0.020kg of water boiled away. From these figures calculate
the value of L.
 Ans: 2 500 000 J/kg
Types of Steam Turbines

 Reaction Turbine
 Impulse or Action Turbine
Reaction Turbine
Impulse Turbine or Action Turbine