Chapter Three

Action Research

By Workineh T.(Assistant Professor) 1

• It is a reflective process that allows for inquiry and
discussion as components of the “research.”
• Often, action research is a collaborative activity
among colleagues searching for solutions to
everyday, real problems experienced in schools, or
looking for ways to improve instruction and
increase student achievement.
• Rather than dealing with the theoretical, action
research allows practitioners to address those
concerns that are closest to them, ones over which
they can exhibit some influence and make change.
By Workineh T.(Assistant Professor) 2
• Practitioners are responsible for making more
and more decisions in the operations of
schools, and they are being held publicly
accountable for student achievement results.
• The process of action research assists educators
in assessing needs, documenting the steps of
inquiry, analyzing data, and making informed
decisions that can lead to desired outcomes.
• Typically, action research is undertaken in a
school setting.

By Workineh T.(Assistant Professor) 3

• Action research is not what usually comes to
mind when we hear the word “research.”
Action research is not a library project where
we learn more about a topic that interests us.
• It is not problem-solving in the sense of trying
to find out what is wrong, but rather a quest
for knowledge about how to improve.
• Action research is not about doing research on
or about people, or finding all available
information on a topic looking for the correct
answer.
By Workineh T.(Assistant Professor) 4
• It involves people working to improve their
skills, techniques, and strategies.
• Action research is not about learning why we
do certain things, but rather how we can do
things better.
• It is about how we can change our instruction
to impact students.

By Workineh T.(Assistant Professor) 5

• The idea of using research in a “natural” setting to
change the way that the researcher interacts with
that setting can be traced back to Kurt Lewin, a
social psychologist and educator whose work on
action research was developed throughout the
1940s in the United States.
• “Lewin is credited with coining the term ‘action
research’ to describe work that did not separate
the investigation from the action needed to solve
the problem” (McFarland & Stansell, 1993).

By Workineh T.(Assistant Professor) 6

 Steps in Action Research
• Within all the definitions of action research, there are
four basic themes:
– empowerment of participants,
– Collaboration through participation,
– acquisition of knowledge, and
– social change.
• These routines are guided by movement through five
phases of inquiry
1. Identification of problem area
2. Collection and organization of data
3. Interpretation of data
4. Action based on data
5. Reflection
By Workineh T.(Assistant Professor) 7
 1. IDENTIFY A PROBLEM AREA
There are several criteria to consider before
investing the time and effort in “researching” a
problem. The question should:
 be a higher-order question—not a yes/no
 be stated in common language, avoiding
jargon
 be concise/brief
 be meaningful
 not already have an answer

By Workineh T.(Assistant Professor) 8

 2. GATHER DATA

• The collection of data is an important step in

deciding what action needs to be taken.
• Multiple sources of data are used to better
understand the scope of happenings.
• Interviews, portfolios, diaries, field notes,
audio tapes, photos, memos, questionnaires,
focus groups, subjective records, checklists,
journals, individual files, logs of meetings,
videotapes, case studies, surveys, records –
tests, report cards, attendance etc…

By Workineh T.(Assistant Professor) 9

 3. INTERPRET DATA

• Analyze and identify major themes.

Depending upon the question
• Quantitative data can be presented in
statistical method like percentage, frequency,
mean, variance,…in table , in charts, in figures.
• Qualitative data/ that are not quantifiable can
be narrated.

By Workineh T.(Assistant Professor) 10

 4. ACT ON EVIDENCE
• Using the information from the data collection
and review of current literature, design a plan of
action that will allow you to make a change and
to study that change. It is important that only
one variable be altered.
• As with any experiment, if several changes are
made at once, it will be difficult to determine
which action is responsible for the outcome.
• While the new technique is being implemented,
continue to document and collect data on
performance.
By Workineh T.(Assistant Professor) 11
 5. EVALUATE RESULTS
• Assess the effects of the intervention to
determine if improvement has occurred. If there
is improvement, do the data clearly provide the
supporting evidence? If no, what changes can be
made to the actions to elicit better results?
6. NEXT STEPS
• As a result of the action research project,
identify additional questions raised by the data
and plan for additional improvements, revisions,
and next steps.
By Workineh T.(Assistant Professor) 12
 Variables and types of Variables
• Very simply, a VARIABLE is a measurable characteristic
that varies. It may change from group to group, person to
person, or even within one person over time. There are six
common variable types:
1. DEPENDENT VARIABLES
show the effect of manipulating or introducing the
independent variables. For example, if the independent
variable is the use or non-use of a new language teaching
procedure, then the dependent variable might be students'
scores on a test of the content taught using that procedure.
In other words, the variation in the dependent variable
depends on the variation in the independent variable.
By Workineh T.(Assistant Professor) 13
2. INDEPENDENT VARIABLES
are those that the researcher has control over. This
"control" may involve manipulating existing variables
(e.g., modifying existing methods of instruction) or
introducing new variables (e.g., adopting a totally
new method for some sections of a class) in the
research setting.
Whatever the case may be, the researcher expects
that the independent variable(s) will have some
effect on (or relationship with) the dependent
variables.
By Workineh T.(Assistant Professor) 14
• The dependent variable is the variable a
researcher is interested in. An independent
variable is a variable believed to affect the
dependent variable.
• Confounding variables are variables that the
researcher failed to control, or eliminate, and
this can damage the internal validity of an
experiment.

By Workineh T.(Assistant Professor) 15

3. INTERVENING VARIABLES
refer to abstract processes that are not directly
observable but that link the independent and dependent
variables.
In language learning and teaching, they are usually inside
the subjects' heads, including various language learning
processes which the researcher cannot observe.
For example, if the use of a particular teaching technique
is the independent variable and mastery of the
objectives is the dependent variable, then the language
learning processes used by the subjects are the
intervening variables.
By Workineh T.(Assistant Professor) 16
4. CONTROL VARIABLES
Language learning and teaching are very complex
processes.
It is not possible to consider every variable in a
single study.
Therefore, the variables that are not measured in
a particular study must be held constant,
neutralized/balanced, or eliminated, so they will
not have a biasing effect on the other variables.
Variables that have been controlled in this way
are called control variables.
By Workineh T.(Assistant Professor) 17
5. EXTRANEOUS VARIAB
are those factors in the research environment which may
have an effect on the dependent variable(s) but which are
not controlled. Extraneous variables are dangerous.
They may damage a study's validity, making it impossible to
know whether the effects were caused by the independent
and moderator variables or some extraneous factor.
If they cannot be controlled, extraneous variables must at
least be taken into consideration when interpreting results.

By Workineh T.(Assistant Professor) 18

Data and types of data in research
• Data may be grouped into four main types based on
methods for collection: observational,
experimental, simulation, and derived.
• The type of research data you collect may affect the
way you manage that data. For example, data that is
hard or impossible to replace (e.g. the recording of
an event at a specific time and place) requires extra
backup procedures to reduce the risk of data loss.
• Or, if you will need to combine data points from
different sources, you will need to follow best
practices to prevent data corruption.
By Workineh T.(Assistant Professor) 19
1. Observational Data
• Observational data is captured through
observation of a behavior or activity. It is collected
using methods such as human observation, open-
ended surveys, or the use of an instrument or
sensor to monitor and record information
• such as the use of sensors to observe noise levels
at the Mpls/St Paul airport. Because observational
data is captured in real time, it would be very
difficult or impossible to re-create if lost.
By Workineh T.(Assistant Professor) 20
2. Experimental Data
• Experimental data is collected through active
intervention by the researcher to produce and
measure change or to create difference when a
variable is altered.
• Experimental data typically allows the researcher
to determine a causal relationship and is typically
projectable to a larger population. This type of
data is often reproducible, but it often can be
expensive to do so.

By Workineh T.(Assistant Professor) 21

3. Simulation Data
• Simulation data is generated by imitating the
operation of a real-world process or system over
time using computer test models.
• For example, to predict weather conditions,
economic models, chemical reactions, or seismic
activity.
• This method is used to try to determine what
would, or could, happen under certain conditions.
The test model used is often as, or even more,
important than the data generated from the
simulation. By Workineh T.(Assistant Professor) 22
Derived / Compiled Data
• Derived data involves using existing data points,
often from different data sources, to create new
data through some sort of transformation, such
as an arithmetic formula or aggregation.
• For example, combining area and population
data from the Twin Cities metro area to create
population density data.
• While this type of data can usually be replaced if
lost, it may be very time-consuming (and possibly
expensive) to do so.
By Workineh T.(Assistant Professor) 23
 Quantitative Data

• Continuous: the variable can, in theory, be any

value within a certain range. Can be measured.
– Examples: height, weight, blood pressure,
cholesterol.
• Discrete: the variable can only have certain
values, usually whole numbers. Can be
counted.
– Examples: number of visits to doctor in last year,
number of fractures, number of children.
– Data most of the time gathered by questionnaire

By Workineh T.(Assistant Professor) 24

 Qualitative Data

• Qualitative variables can be nominal or

ordinal.
• Nominal: the variable does not have a specific
order.
– Examples: eye color, blood type, ethnicity.
• Ordinal: the variable has a specific order.
– Examples: stages of cancer, class letter grade,
position in a race.
– Data mostly gathered by interviews, observation
and document analysis
By Workineh T.(Assistant Professor) 25
 Primary data
• Type of data based on who collected(primary and
secondary data)
• Primary data is data originated for the first time by the
researcher through direct efforts and experience,
specifically for the purpose of addressing his research
problem. Also known as the first hand or raw data.
• Primary data collection is quite expensive, as the
research is conducted by the organization or agency
itself, which requires resources like investment and
manpower.
• The data collection is under direct control and
supervision of the investigator.
By Workineh T.(Assistant Professor) 26
 Secondary data
• secondary data implies second-hand
information which is already collected and
recorded by any person other than the user
for a purpose, not relating to the current
research problem.
• It is the readily available form of data collected
from various sources like censuses,
government publications, internal records of
the organisation, reports, books, journal
articles, websites and so on.
By Workineh T.(Assistant Professor) 27
• Secondary data offer several advantages as it is easily
available, saves time and cost of the researcher.
• But there are some disadvantages associated with
this, as the data is gathered for the purposes other
than the problem in mind, so the usefulness of the
data may be limited in a number of ways like
relevance and accuracy.
• Moreover, the objective and the method adopted for
acquiring data may not be suitable to the current
situation. Therefore, before using secondary data,
these factors should be kept in mind.

By Workineh T.(Assistant Professor) 28

 Unit of Analysis
• One of the important ideas in a research is the
units of analysis. It is the main entity that a
researcher analyzes in his study. 
• The unit of analysis is the object about which
generalizations are made based on an analysis.
• They may be persons, groups of persons,
businesses, inanimate objects, transactions,
monetary units, or just about objects or activity
a person can name are the examples of unit of
analysis in research methodology.
By Workineh T.(Assistant Professor) 29
 Unit of Observation
• The unit of observation is a basic concept in
quantitative research that represents the
objects that are observed and about which
information is systematically collected.
• The unit of observation is determined by the
method by which observations have been
selected
• The unit of analysis is determined by an
interest in exploring or explaining a specific
phenomenon.
By Workineh T.(Assistant Professor) 30
 Types of relationship
• A relationship refers to the correspondence between
two variables. When we talk about types of
relationships, we can mean that in at least two ways:
the nature of the relationship or the pattern of it.
1. Correlational-relation ship
• For example people who are good in one may have a
greater tendency to be good in the other; those who
are poor in one may also tend to be poor in the
other. If this relationship is true, then we can say that
the two variables are correlated.

By Workineh T.(Assistant Professor) 31

• A correlational relationship simply says that two
things perform in a synchronized /matched/
harmonized manner.
• There is a correlation between the number of
roads built in Europe and the number of children
born in the United States… perhaps the general
world economy is responsible for both, we don't
believe that the relationship is a causal one.
• When the economy is good more roads are built
in Europe and more children are born in the U.S.

By Workineh T.(Assistant Professor) 32

2. Casual relation ship
• A causal relation between two events exists if
the occurrence of the first causes the other.
The first event is called the cause and the
second event is called the effect.
• Example high cholesterol level and heart
disease/ diabetes/high pretention

By Workineh T.(Assistant Professor) 33

 Hypothesis formulation
• “It is a tentative prediction about the nature of the
relationship between two or more variables.”
• “A hypothesis can be defined as a tentative explanation of
the research
• problem, a possible outcome of the research, or an
educated guess about the research outcome.” (Sarantakos,
1993: 1991)
• Hypotheses are always in declarative sentence form, and
they relate, either generally or specifically , variables to
variables.”
• An hypothesis is a statement or explanation that is
suggested by current knowledge or observation but has
not, yet, been proved or disproved.” (Macleod Clark J and
Hockey L 1981)
By Workineh T.(Assistant Professor) 34
 Research Credibility

Ensuring your research evidence, findings and

conclusion can stand up to the study;
•Reducing the possibility of getting wrong
answers to the study means that attention
should be paid to two concepts:
–Reliability
–Validity.

By Workineh T.(Assistant Professor) 35

1. Reliability:
• To rely on, to depend confidently upon,
measurement free from error, yielding
consistent results:
–Will the measures yield the same results on
other occasions?
–Will similar observations be reached by other
observers?
–Is there transparency in how sense was made
from the raw data?
By Workineh T.(Assistant Professor) 36
Can we improve reliability?
–Participant error – e.g. questionnaire on
productivity administered on Monday and Friday
may produce different results;
–Participant bias e.g. participants giving answers
they want management to hear;
–Observer error – 3 or more interviewers eliciting
answers differently in questionnaire
administration;
–Observer bias – possibility of different ways of
interpreting results.
By Workineh T.(Assistant Professor) 37
2. Validity:
•whether findings are really about what they appear to
be about, rational? Strong? Weighted ?
•addresses the question: how do we know that this
instrument (e.g. questionnaire) is measuring what we
think or wish to measure
•Threats to validity
–Lack of generalizability;
–Poor identification of research population;
–Poor data collection;
–Illogical data interpretation;
–Development of unsupported conclusions
By Workineh T.(Assistant Professor) 38