Module 2 | Sampling

and Data Gathering

Procedure
Lesson Objectives

1. Determine sample size using formula;

2. Perform sampling from any target population;
3. Differentiate probability from non-probability sampling;
4. Differentiate biased and unbiased samples; and
5. Use the different data gathering techniques.
I. Sampling Technique
 
Sampling – is the act, process, or technique of selecting an appropriate sample or a
representative part of a population for the purpose of determining the characteristics of the
whole population.

1. Probability Sampling – Samples are chosen in such a way that each member of the
population has a known though not necessarily equal chance of being included in the
sample. It avoids biases that might arise if samples were selected based on the whims
of the researcher. The samples used are called UNBIASED SAMPLES.

2. Non-Probability Sampling – Each member of the population does not have a known
chance of being included in the sample. Instead, personal judgment plays a very
important role in the selection. It is one of the sources of errors in research. The
samples used are called BIASED SAMPLES.
Types of Probability Sampling Technique

1. Simple random sampling – all members of the population have a chance of being
included in the sample.
 
Example: Lottery and table of random numbers
 
2. Systematic random sampling – it selects every kth member of the population with
the starting point determine at random.
 
Example: Selecting every 5th member of N = 150 with 10 random as a random start
gives us: 10, 20, 30, ….
Types of Probability Sampling Technique

3. Stratified sampling – this is used when the population can be subdivided into
several smaller groups or strata, and then samples are randomly selected from each
stratum.
 
Example: Your population is all the students of UDM,
then it can be subdivided in to colleges.

4. Cluster sampling – This is sometimes called area sampling. It is usually used when
the population is very large or widely spread.
 
Example: Your population is all the residents of Manila,
you can cluster it according to District they belong.
Types of Probability Sampling Technique

5. Multi-stage sampling – the selection of the sample is accomplished in two or more

steps. The population is first divided into a number of first-stage or primary units, from
which a sample is drawn. Within the sampled first-stage units, a sample of second
stage or secondary units is drawn.
 
Example:

Sta g e Sa m p le
Prim a ry Re g io n
Se c o n d a ry Pro vin c e
Th ird Sta g e Mu n ic ip a lity / C ity
Fo u rth Sta g e Ba ra n g a y
Fifth Sta g e Ho u se h o ld
Types of Non-Probability Sampling Technique

1. Convenience sampling – process of selecting samples who is conveniently

available for study.
 
Example: A researcher may only include close friends
or clients to be included in the sample.

2. Purposive sampling – this process involves choosing the sample on the basis of
pre-determined criteria set by the researcher.

Example: The research is all about students who bullied

in a specific school, therefore, samples are only bullied
students on that school.
Types of Non-Probability Sampling Technique

3. Quota sampling – samples are get based from the assigned number or quota.
 
Example: Supposed you give flyers and your quota is 100. So the first 100 person you
see is the only persons that you will give the flyers.

4. Snowball sampling – chain-referral sampling, where existing study subjects recruit

future subjects from among their acquaintances.
 II. Determining Sample Size

The population is too big to handle, a significant number of samples is acceptable.

Determining sample size is very important issue because samples that are too large may
waste time, resources and money. On the other hand, samples that are too small may lead
to inaccurate results.
 
Approaches in determining sample size:
 
1. Slovin’s Formula (not recommended)
 

 
where: n – sample size
N – population size
e – margin of error
 II. Determining Sample Size

Example computation:
 
Assume that N = 5,000 and e = 5% or 0.05
  Pattern of n as N increases

Warning! Slovin’s formula cannot be used for t-test, correlation, ANOVA, regression,
Chi – square, et cetera.
II. Determining Sample Size

2. Statistical Power Analysis by GPower Software (recommended)

 
GPower is a free statistical power analysis software.
 
Statistical Power Analysis - means that sample size depends on the following factors:
 
a. Effect size – a measure of strength of the examined relationship. Effect size are described as
small, medium, and large and are different for each statistical test (Kyriazos, 2018).
 
Cohen (1977, 1988) provides the following:
small medium large
T-test on means .20 .50 .80
t-test on .10 .30 .50
correlations
F-test (ANOVA) .10 .25 .40
F-Test (MLR) .02 .15 .35
Chi-square Test .10 .15 .50
 II. Determining Sample Size

b. Tolerance for errors in decision (Type I and Type 2 errors)

 
• Alpha (). The probability of identifying a non-existing effect. This kind of error
has termed Type I error (false positive). In most research, alpha is set at .05.
• Beta (). The probability of not identifying an existing effect. This kind of error
has termed Type II error (false negative).

c. Statistical power – likelihood of detecting actual present effect (Coolican, 2014).

The desired level of statistical power is .80. 80% probability to detect an existing
effect. (Cohen, 1988 and 1992).
 
d. Statistical test to be used
II. Determining Sample Size

Notes:

1. Alpha and power are related – for a fixed sample size, alpha increases as the
statistical power increases.
2. Effect size and sample size are inversely related.
• Larger effects can be detected by smaller samples.
• Smaller effects can be detected by larger samples.
3. The larger the effect size, the larger the power.
II. Determining Sample Size

Types of Statistical Analysis

 
1. A priori power analysis – finding sample size, given alpha, power and effect size.

2. Post hoc power analysis – finding achieved power, given alpha, effect size and
sample size.

3. Compromise power analysis – finding alpha and power, given sample size and
effect size.

4. Sensitivity power analysis – finding effect size, given alpha, power and sample
size.
II. Determining Sample Size

Five Steps in Calculating Sample Size

 
Step 1: Specify a hypothesis.
Step 2: Specify the significance level of the test. Usually alpha = .05.
Step 3: Specify the smallest effect size that is of scientific interest.
Step 4: Estimate the values of other parameters necessary to compute the power
function.
Step 5: Specify the intended power of the test. Usually .80. If you are applying for a
research grant, .90 is better.
II. Determining Sample Size

Sample results:
III. Methods or Techniques in Collecting Data

1. Direct or Interview method – interviewers personally ask the questions to the respondents
and record the answers of the respondents on the questionnaire. It can be pencil and paper
interview or computer assisted personal interview.
 
Examples: Personal interview, telephone interview, through social media
 
2. Indirect or Questionnaire method – this method utilizes survey questionnaires to obtain
information.
 
Two types of survey:
Census – when data come from asking all the people in the population
Sample survey – when data come from asking a sample of people selected from a well-defined
population.
 
Examples: self-administered questionnaire, online surveys, focus group discussion
III. Methods or Techniques in Collecting Data

3. Registration method – method of gathering information is governed by law.

 
Examples: birth certificates, licenses
 
4. Observation method – the data are obtained by recording the behavior of an
individual or a phenomenon at the time of occurrence.
 
5. Experiment method – it is used to determine the cause and effect relationship of
certain phenomena under controlled conditions. This is employed by the scientific
researchers.