June 22, 2021

CHAPTER 1

MATTER
1.1 Atoms and Molecules

MADAM SHAHIRAH
MANSOR

1
 2 June 22, 2021

1.1 Atoms and Molecules

Learning Outcome

At the end of this topic, students should be able to :

(a) Identify and describe proton, electron and neutron

as subatomic particle.
(b) Define proton number Z, nucleon number A, and
isotope. Write isotope notation.
 3 June 22, 2021

MATTER

� All matter is composed of tiny particles.

� The particles are in constant motion.
� Increased temperature reflects increased motion of
particles.
� Solids, liquids and gases differ in the freedom of
motion of their particles and in how strongly the
particles attract each other.
 4 June 22, 2021

STATES OF MATTER

SOLI LIQUI GAS

D D
 5 June 22, 2021

ATOM
� Tiny particle (smallest unit) that made up matter
(element, compound, molecules etc.)
� Atom consist of subatomic particles.

proton
Densely packed in a small nucleus

neutron

Move rapidly around the nucleus of an atom in

electron the form of electron cloud
 6 June 22, 2021

SUBATOMIC PARTICLE OF AN
ATOM
subatomic particles which carries a
Proton single positive charges

Neutron subatomic particles which carries

no charges (neutral)

Electron cloud occupied by

Elcetron negative charged populated
surrounding the nucleus
 7 June 22, 2021

NUCLEON

� the particles that are found in the nucleus

� consist proton and neutron

� Element can be identified by its proton number

 8 June 22, 2021

SUBATOMIC PARTICLES
Mass Charge Charge
Particle
(gram) (coulomb) (units)

Electron (e) 9.1 x 10-28 -1.6 x 10-19 -1

Proton (p) 1.67 x 10-24 +1.6 x 10-19 +1

Neutron (n) 1.67 x 10-24 0 0

 9 June 22, 2021

ATOMS
� Atom is an electrically neutral species
∴number of electron (e-) = number of proton (p)
� Mass of electron is negligible of the mass of whole atom (9.1 x 10-
28 g)

� Mass of proton and neutron will contribute to mass of atom

� Mass of an atom concentrated in its nucleus
 10 June 22, 2021

ELEMENTS
� Fundamental substance that consists of only one type of
atom.
� Silver is element which is made of only silver atoms.
� When atoms are arranged differently in an element having
the same number of protons, you get different forms of an
element.
� For example, both graphite and diamond are elements of
carbon but they look very different from each other
� Matter that cannot be broken down into two or more
substances
� Al, Hg, Pb, Na, Cu
 11 June 22, 2021

ATOMIC NOTATION
Nucleon number @
Mass number
=p+n
Atom @ ion

Atomic number @ Proton

number IMPORTANT!!!
(number of proton in • In neutral atom, proton no = no. of e-
nucleus) • In ionic/charged atom,
proton no. ≠ no. of e-
 12 June 22, 2021

EXAMPLE 1
90
Sr
38 number (Z)
Number of protons = proton
= 38

Number of neutrons = A - Z
= 90 – 38
= 52

Neutral atom,
Number of electron = proton number =
38
 13 June 22, 2021

EXAMPLE 2 (IONIC ATOM)

35
17 Cl -

No. of protons = 13 No. of protons = 17

No. of neutrons = A - Z No. of neutrons = A - Z

= 27 - 13 = 35 – 17
= 14 = 18

No. of electron No. of electron

= proton no – charge = proton no – charge
= 13 – (+3) = 17 – (-1)
= 10 = 18
 14 June 22, 2021

PRACTICE 1
N3- Fe2+
No. of protons = No. of protons =

No. of neutrons = A - Z No. of neutrons = A - Z

= =

No. of electron No. of electron

= proton no – charge = proton no – charge

= =

= =
 15 June 22, 2021

IONS
Monatomic ion contains only Na+, Cl-, Ca2+,
one atom O2-, Al3+, N3-

Polyatomic ion contains more OH-, CN-, NH4+,

than one atom NO3-
 16 June 22, 2021

IMPORTANT!!
� For neutral atom,
no. of proton = no. of e-

� For +vely charged ion,

no. of proton > no. of e-

� For –vely charged ion,

no. of proton < no. of e-
 17 June 22, 2021

Nucleon number of
mercury, A = 202 Total charge on the
ion

The number of
neutrons
=A– Z
= 202 – 80
= 122
Number of atoms
that formed the ion

proton number of
mercury,
Z = 80 For ionic atom,
Proton number ≠ number of
electron
 18 June 22, 2021

ISOTOPE
� Isotopes are two or more atoms of the same element that
have the same number of protons in their nucleus but
different number of neutrons
� Examples:

Species Hydrogen Deuterium Tritium

Proton 1 1 1
Neutron 0 1 2
Electron 1 1 1
 19 June 22, 2021

Carbon isotopes

Three naturally occurring carbon isotopes. While each have the same number of
protons and electrons, they differ in the number of neutrons.
 20 June 22, 2021

ISOTOPES
SIMILARITIES DIFFERENCES
▪ number of protons ▪ number of neutrons
(proton number) (nucleon number) in the
▪ charge of nucleus of the nucleus of the atoms
atoms ▪ relative isotopic mass
▪ number of electrons in a
neutral atom ▪ physical properties (e.g
boiling point / melting
▪ electronic configuration point, density, effusion
(the number of valence rate,…)
electrons)
▪ chemical properties
 21 June 22, 2021

MOLECULE
� Combination of two or more atoms
� Atoms jointly held by chemical bonds.
� Diatomic molecule contains only two atoms
H2, N2, O2, Br2, HCl, CO
� Polyatomic molecule contains more than two atoms
O3, H2O, NH3, CH4

H H2O NH3 CH4

2
 22 June 22, 2021

PRACTICE 2
� Give the number of protons, neutrons, electrons and charge in
each of the following species:

Number of :
Symbol Charge
Proton Neutron Electron
 23 June 22, 2021

PRACTICE 3
� Write the appropriate notation for each of the following
nuclide :

Number of :
Notation
Species
Proton Neutron Electron for nuclide

A 2 2 2
B 1 2 0
C 1 1 1
D 7 7 10
� Which the following species are isotopes?
 24 22 June 2021

LEARNING OUTCOME
At the end of this topic, students should be able to :

(c) Define relative atomic mass Ar , and relative

molecular mass Mr , based on the C-12 scale.

(d) Determine relative atomic mass based on

isotopic abundance
 25 22 June 2021

RELATIVE MASS
Relative molecular mass,
Relative atomic mass, Ar Mr
�  � 
 26 22 June 2021

FORMULA
Relative atomic mass, Ar

Relative molecular mass, Mr

 27 22 June 2021

EXAMPLE 3
Determine the relative atomic mass of an element Y if
the ratio of the atomic mass of Y to carbon-12 atom is
0.75

ANSWER:

= 0.75 x 12

=9
 28 22 June 2021

EXAMPLE 4
Calculate the relative molecular mass and molar mass of
C5H5N, if given the relative atomic mass of C=12.01, H=1.01,
N=14.01

Mr =5(Ar C) + 5(Ar H) + Ar N Molar mass = 5(12.01) +

= 5(12.01) + 5(1.01) + 14.01 5(1.01) + 14.01
= 60.05 + 5.05 + 14.01 = 60.05 + 5.05 + 14.01
= 79.11 = 79.11 g mol-1
 29 22 June 2021

EXAMPLE 5
Calculate the relative molecular mass of freon (CCl2F2) if given the
atomic mass of each atom:
C = 12.01 a.m.u
Cl = 35.45 a.m.u
F = 19.00 a.m.u

Solution:
 30 22 June 2021

MASS SPECTROMETER
� A mass spectrometer is used to determine:

i. Relative atomic mass of an element

ii. Relative molecular mass of a compound
iii. Types of isotopes, the abundance and its relative
isotopic mass
iv. Recognize the structure of the compound in an
unknown sample
 31 22 June 2021

MASS SPECTROMETER – the machine

 32 22 June 2021

Simple diagram of mass spectrometer and

how it works
 33 22 June 2021

MASS SPECTRUM OF Mg
� The mass spectrum of Mg
shows that Mg consists of
three isotopes: 24Mg, 25Mg
and 26Mg.

� The height of each line is

proportional to the
abundance (amount) of
Axis has no arrow!!
each isotope.
Relative abundance

63 � 24Mg is the most abundant

of the three isotopes
9.1
8.1

24 25 26 m/e (amu)
 34 22 June 2021

HOW TO CALCULATE Ar FROM

MASS SPECTRUM

Qi = relative abundance or % abundance

of an isotope of the element

Mi = relative isotopic mass of the element

 35 22 June 2021

Fig 1.1 shows the mass spectrum of the

EXAMPLE 6 element rubidium, Rb
a)What isotopes are present in Rb?
85
Rb and 87Rb

b) What is the percentage abundance of each

Relative abundance

isotope?
18
% abundance 85Rb
= 18 x 100
7 25
= 72 %
85 87 m/e % abundance 87Rb
(amu) = 7 x 100
25
= 28 %
 36 22 June 2021

EXAMPLE 6 (cont.)
c) Calculate the relative atomic mass of Rb.

TWO steps
calculation!!
 37 22 June 2021

PRACTICE
The ratio of relative abundance of naturally occurring
of chlorine isotopes are as follows:

35
Cl
=3.127
37
Cl

Given the atomic mass of 35Cl=34.9689a.m.u and 37Cl

= 36.9659a.m.u. Calculate Ar of the chlorine.
 38 22 June 2021

PRACTICE
Naturally occurring iridium Ir is composed of 2 isotopes
which are 191Ir and 193Ir in the ratio of 5:8. Based on
carbon-12 scale, the relative atomic mass of 191Ir and 193Ir
are 191.021 and 193.025 respectively.

a) Sketch and label the mass spectrum for Ir.

b) Calculate the Ar of iridium.
 39 22 June 2021

REMINDER!!!
� Be sure when to use ONE step or TWO steps
calculation in finding the Ar.
 22 June 2021

CHAPTER 1

MATTER
1.2 Mole Concepts

40
WHAT WILL YOU LEARN?
Number of
Mass No of mole
molecules

Molar
Number of Number of
volume of
atoms ions
gas
 MOLE CONCEPT
▪ Mole is defined as the amount of substance which contains
same number or particles (atoms, molecules or ions) that
exist in exactly 12.00 g of carbon-12.

▪ The value 6.02 x 1023 is known as Avogadro Constant, NA.

NA = 6.023 x 1023

▪ The quantity represented by Avogadro constant is so

important that it is given a special name, the mole.
 MOLE CONCEPT
Avogadro constant represent number of atoms of an element
whose mass in grams is numerically equal to the atomic
mass of the element
1 mole of particle = 6.023x1023 particles = Ar @ Mr
*particles = atoms, molecules, ions

“A mole is often referred to as ‘chemist’s dozen”

• 1 mole of atoms = 6.02x1023 atoms

• 1 mole of molecules = 6.02x1023 molecules

• 1 mole of ions = 6.02x1023 ions
MOLAR MASS
• Molar mass 🡪 The mass of 1 mole of an element or
one mole of compound
• Unit : g mol-1
• Symbol : Mw
Atomic mass Molar mass
Mg 24.30 u 24.30 g mol-1
NaCl 58.44 u 58.44 g mol-1
NUMBER OF MOLE

� Unit?
Relationship between mole, mass and
amount of particles
EXAMPLE 1

In 14.00 g of N2, calculate :

i. Number of moles of N2 molecules if molar
mass = 28 g mol-1
ii. Number of molecule
iii. Number of atom

0.5 mol; 3.011 x 1023 molecules; 6.022 x 1023 atoms

 EXAMPLE 7
Acetylsalicylic acid, C9H8O4, is the active
ingredients of aspirin. Calculate the number
of H atoms in 1 mole of acetylsalicylic acid.

Solution

1 mole of C9H8O4 molecules contains 8 moles of H atom

∴Number of H atom = Number of moles x NA
= 8 x 6.022 x 1023
= 4.8176 x 1024 atoms
Example 8
Calculate the number of ions of these
following compounds.

1.00 x 10-3 moles Al2(SO4)3

3.0115 x 1021 ions

� 
 
 
 
EXAMPLE 9
Calculate the mass of (NH4)2CO3 that
contains:
a) 0.300 mol NH4+
b) 6.023 x 1023 hydrogen atoms
(NH4)2CO3 consist of ____ mol ____________ ions and _____ mol
_______ ions

a) 1 mol (NH4)2CO3 = ______ mol NH4+ ion

X = 0.300 mol NH4+

No. of mole of (NH4)2CO3 =

Mass of (NH4)2CO3 =

14.4g
 

12.0g
PRACTICE 7
Calculate
a) The number of atoms in 16.0g of
oxygen gas
b) The mass of one copper atom
c) The mass of 3 x 1023 copper atoms

6.02 x 10 23 atoms; 1.055 x 10-22 g; 31.6294

PRACTICE 8
a) How many moles of chorine molecule are found
in 5 x 1022 molecules of chlorine gas?
b) How many grams of copper, Cu are there in 2.55
mol of Cu?
c) Calculate number of atoms of 287.9g Al2O3.
d) Calculate the number of ions, number of calcium
ion and number of 1.0 mol of calcium bromide,
CaBr2.

8.3 x 10-2 mol; 161.925 g; 8.50 x 1024 atoms

MOLE CONCEPT OF GASES
❑Molar Volume is the volume occupied by 1
mole gas.

Molar
Volume

At At
STP RTP
 MOLE CONCEPT OF GASES
� 

Note : 1L = 1 dm3
Example 10
How many moles are there in 6.5 L oxygen
at STP?

0.29 mol
Example 11
When potassium chlorate (v) solid is heated strongly,
oxygen gas is liberated.

2KClO3(s) → 2KCl(s) + 3O2(g)

Calculate the volume of oxygen gas evolved at STP when

0.5g of potassium chlorate (v) is heated.
0.137 dm3
PRACTICE 9
1) A balloon is filled with hydrogen gas
at STP. If the volume of the balloon
is 2.24 dm3, calculate the amount of
mole of hydrogen gas. 0.1 mole

2) Calculate the volume of 24 x 1023

molecules of gas at STP. 89.3 L
PRACTICE 10
A sample of carbon dioxide has a volume
of 56 cm3 at STP. Calculate:
a) the number of moles of gas molecules
b) the number of molecules
c) the number of oxygen atoms in the
sample

0.0025 moles; 1.5 x 1021 ; 3.0 x 1021

MOLE CONCEPT OF GASES
2) Molar volume of any gas at room temperature,

1 mol of gas = 24 dm3

� T = 250C @ 298.15 K,

� P = 1 atm @ 760 mmHg

� Amount of gas at room temperature,

n = V, Volume of gas (dm3)

Vm (24 dm3 mol−1)
Example 12
How many liter of 55.7g of O2 will
occupy at room temperature?

41.775 L
EMPIRICAL & MOLECULAR
FORMULA
EMPIRICAL MOLECULAR
FORMULA FORMULA
� The simplest formula � Show the exact number
for a compound. of atoms of each
element in the smallest
� DOES NOT express unit of a substance.
the real composition of
molecule. � Example: Benzene
MF = C6H6
EF = CH
EXAMPLE 13
A compound X (Mr = 120.5) has the
following composition by mass :
C = 49.8%, H = 7.5%, O = 13.2%,
Cl = 29.5%. Determine:
a) the empirical formula of X
b) the molecular formula of X
 C H O Cl
Mass 49.8 7.5 13.2 29.5
(g)
No. of
mole
(mol)
Smalles
t ratio

So, empirical formula is C5H9OCl

� 
PRACTICE 11
A sample of a brown-colored gas that is a major air
pollutant is found to contain 2.34 g of N and 5.34 g
of O.
What is the simplest formula of the compound?
(N=14.0 g mol-1 ,O =16.0 g mol-1)

NO2
PRACTICE 12
What is the empirical formula for the compound
composed of 43.7% P and 56.3% O by weight?
(Ar : P = 31.0 , O= 16.0)

P2O5
 PRACTICE 13
Combustion of 2.30g sample of an organic
compound, X yields 3.30g CO2 and 1.80g H2O. Its
molecular mass is 92.
What are the empirical and molecular formula of the
compound.

Hint!!!
Find the mass of H and C, then mass of O from the total mass of the
sample.

C3H8O3
 74 6/22/2021

Learning Outcome
At the end of this topic, students should be able to:
Define and perform calculation for each of the
following concentration measurements :
i) molarity (M)
ii) molality (m)
iii) mole fraction, X
iv) percentage by mass, % w/w
v) percentage by volume, %V/V
MATTER
 CONCENTRATION OF SOLUTION
Solution
� When an amount of solute dissolved completely in
a solvent and it will form a homogeneous mixture.

6/22/2021 MATTER 75
� The
concentration of
solutions is the
quantity of
dissolve solute
per unit
quantity of % by
solvent in a Molarity
Volume
solution. (%v/v)
(M)
� Concentration
of a solution
can be % by
Molality
calculated by Mass
(m)
using: (%w/w)

Mole
Fraction

6/22/2021 MATTER 76
A. Molarity (M)
� 

Note:
1L = 1dm3 1mL = 1 cm3 1 dm3 = 1000 cm3

6/22/2021 MATTER 77
 78 6/22/2021

EXAMPLE 14
� Calculate the molarity of a solution when 1.71 g
of sucrose (C12H22O11) dissolved in 500 cm3 of
water.
[H = 1.00, C = 12.00, O = 16.00]

MATTER
 79 6/22/2021

SOLUTION

MATTER
 80 6/22/2021

PRACTICE 14
How many grams of potassium dichromate,
K2Cr2O7 are required to prepare a solution of
250mL with 2.16M?

[molar mass K = 39.1, Cr = 52, O = 16] g/mol

Ans : 158.87

MATTER
 81 6/22/2021

PRACTICE 15
A student prepared a solution by dissolving 0.586 g of
sodium carbonate, Na2CO3 in 250 cm3 of water. Calculate
its molarity.

[molar mass Na = 23, C = 12, O = 16] g/mol

Ans : 0.0221 mol dm-3 MATTER

B. MOLALITY or MOLAL
CONCENTRATION
� 

6/22/2021 MATTER 82
 83 6/22/2021

EXAMPLE 14
Calculate the molality of sulphuric acid solution
containing 24.4 g of sulphuric acid in 198 g of water
solvent.
[molar mass H=1.00, O=16.00, S=32.00 g/mol]

If given 198 cm3 of water instead of 198 g, how would

you calculate molality?
MATTER
84 6/22/2021

MATTER
 85 6/22/2021

EXAMPLE 15

MATTER
86 6/22/2021

MATTER
 87 6/22/2021

PRACTICE 16

MATTER
 88 6/22/2021

PRACTICE
17
g/mL

MATTER
C. MOLE FRACTION (X)
�Mole fraction is the ratio of the number of moles of
one component in a mixture divided by the total
number of moles of all component present in the
mixture.

ntotal = nA + nB +nC + ……
6/22/2021 MATTER 89
 90 6/22/2021

�It is always smaller than 1

�The total mol fraction in a mixture (solution) is

equal to one.
XA + XB + XC = 1

MATTER
 91 6/22/2021

EXAMPLE 16

MATTER
Mole fraction of
CuCl2,

6/22/2021 MATTER 92
 93 6/22/2021

Mole fraction of
H2O,

MATTER
 94 6/22/2021

Alternative method to find mole fraction of

H2O,

0.993
MATTER
 95 6/22/2021

EXAMPLE 17

MATTER
6/22/2021 MATTER 96
D. PERCENTAGE BY MASS (%w/w)
�Percentage by mass is defined as the percentage of
the mass of solute per mass of solution

�10% w/w NaOH ⇒ 10 g of NaOH (solute)

dissolved in 100g of solution
n !
⇒ 10 g of NaOH dissolved in
t i o
Assump
90 g of solvent (water)
97
 98 6/22/2021

EXAMPLE 18

MATTER
 99 6/22/2021

EXAMPLE 19

MATTER
100 6/22/2021

MATTER
 101 6/22/2021

PRACTICE 18

MATTER
E. PERCENTAGE BY VOLUME (%v/ v)
�Percentage by volume is defined as the percentage of
volume of solute (in milliliter) per volume of
solution (in milliliter)

6/22/2021 MATTER 102

 103 6/22/2021

EXAMPLE 20

MATTER
PRACTICE 19
� Laboratory ammonia is 1.48M NH3(aq) with a
density of 0.8980 g/mL. Calculate
a) mol fraction of ammonia in this solution
b) % w/w

Ans: a) 0.0296 b) 2.8%

PRACTICE 20
A 0.8 mol dm-3 solution of sulphuric acid, H2SO4 has a
density of 1.10 g cm-3 at room temperature. What is the
concentration of this solution in weight percent?
(Mw H2SO4 = 98 g mol-1)

(Ans: 7.13 %)
 June 22, 2021

CHAPTER 1

MATTER
1.3 Stoichiometry

106
 107 6/22/2021

LEARNING OUTCOME
At the end of this topic, students should be able to
:

1) Write and balance chemical equation by

inspection method
2) Balance chemical equation by ion electron
method
3) Determine the oxidation number of an
element in a chemical formula

MATTER
 108 6/22/2021

BALANCING CHEMICAL EQUATION

Balance chemical
equation

Inspection method Ion electron method

MATTER
 109 6/22/2021

BALANCING CHEMICAL EQUATION

� A chemical equation shows a chemical reaction using
symbols for the reactants and products.

� The formulae of the reactants are written on the left side of

the equation while the products are on the right.

MATTER
 110 6/22/2021

xA +yB zC +wD
Reactants Products

�x, y, z and w 🡪showing the relative number of

molecules reacting, are called the stoichiometric
coefficients
MATTER
 111 6/22/2021

� Balanced equation 🡪 The total number of atoms

of each element is the same on both sides.

� The number x, y, z and w, showing the relative

number of molecules reacting, are called the
stoichiometric coefficients.

MATTER
INSPECTION METHOD
� Used to balance simple chemical equations
� No. of atom at left = no. of atom at right
INSPECTION METHOD
Write down the unbalanced equation. Write the
correct formulae each reactant and product.

Balance the metallic element, then non-metallic

element

Balance the hydrogen and oxygen atoms

Check total number of atoms of each element is

the same on both sides of equation
 114 6/22/2021

EXAMPLE
Balance the chemical equation

NH3 + CuO → Cu + N2 + H2O

MATTER
 115 6/22/2021

PRACTICE 22
1. Balance the chemical equation below by
applying inspection method

a) Fe(OH)3 + H2SO4 → Fe2(SO4)3 + H2O

b) C6H6 + O2 → CO2 + H2O

c) Mg3N2 + HCl → MgCl2 + NH4Cl

MATTER
PRACTICE 23
Balance the chemical equation below by applying
inspection method

a) CH4 + NH3 + O2 🡪 HCN + H2O

b) Fe2O3 + H2 🡪 Fe + H2O

c) BF3 + H2O 🡪 B2O3 + HF

 118 6/22/2021

REDOX REACTION
� Redox reaction is a reaction that involves both
reduction and oxidation.
� Balance by using ion electron method.
� Balancing can be done in acidic and basic
solutions.

MATTER
ION ELECTRON METHOD
(IN ACIDIC SOLUTION)
❶ Divide equation into oxidation and
reduction

❷ Balance element other than O and H

❸ 🡪 Balance O (by adding H2O)

🡪 Balance H (by adding H+)

❹Balance electron (at side with greater +ve

charge)
ION ELECTRON METHOD
(IN ACIDIC SOLUTION)
❺ Multiply half reaction with integer (to get same
no. of electron on both oxidation and reduction half
equation

❻ Add up two half equation

🡪 Element on the same side : ADD
🡪 Element on opposite side : CANCEL

❼ Check the overall equation

 121 June 22, 2021

LETS DO THIS!!
Balance this equation in acidic solution:

Fe2+ + MnO4- → Fe3+ + Mn2+

 122 June 22, 2021

ANSWER
5Fe2+ + MnO4- + 8H+ → 5Fe3+ + Mn2+ + 4H2O
IMPORTANT!!!!

Check the equation to make sure that there are the same number of atoms of
each kind and the same total charge on both sides.

5Fe2+ + MnO4- + 8H+ → 5Fe3+ + Mn2+ + 4H2O

Total charge reactant Total charge product

= 5(+2) + (-1) + 8(+1) = 5(+3) + (+2) + 4(0)
= + 10 - 1 + 8 = + 15 + (+2)
= +17 = +17

6/22/2021 MATTER 123

 124 6/22/2021

BALANCING REDOX REACTION

IN BASIC SOLUTION
1. Follow the sequence of steps for acidic medium.

2. Then, add OH- to both sides of the equation so

that it can be combined with H+ to form H2O
(eliminate H+).

3. The number of hydroxide ions (OH-) added is

equal to the number of hydrogen ions (H+) in the
equation.

MATTER
ION ELECTRON METHOD
(IN BASIC SOLUTION)
❶ Divide equation into oxidation and
reduction

❷ Balance element other than O and H

❸ 🡪 Balance O (by adding H2O)

🡪 Balance H (by adding H+)

❹ Balance electron (at side with greater +ve

charge)
 ION ELECTRON METHOD
(IN BASIC SOLUTION)
❺ Multiply half reaction with integer (to get same no. of
electron on both oxidation and reduction half equation

❻ Add up two half equation

🡪 Element on the same side : ADD
🡪 Element on opposite side : CANCEL

❼ Check the overall equation

❽ Eliminate H+ by adding OH- at BOTH sides (H+ + OH-

will become H2O)
 127 June 22, 2021

LETS DO THIS!!
Balance this equation in basic solution:
Cr(OH)3 + IO3- + OH- → CrO32- + I- + H2O

6Cr(OH)3 + IO3- + 12OH- → 6CrO32- + I- + 15H2O

 128 6/22/2021

PRACTICE 24
Balance the following redox equations:
a. In Acidic Solution
i. Cu + NO3 + H+→ Cu2+ + NO2 + H2O
ii. MnO4- + H2SO3 → Mn2+ + SO42- + H2O + H+
iii. Zn + SO42- + H+ → Zn2+ + SO2 + H2O

b. In Basic Solution
i. ClO- + S2O32- → Cl- + SO42-
ii. Cl2 → ClO3- + Cl-
iii. NO2 → NO3 + NO
MATTER
 129 June 22, 2021

OXIDATION
⚫ The substance loses one or more electrons.
⚫ Increase in oxidation number
⚫ Act as reducing agent (reductant)
⚫ Example:
Fe2+ → Fe3+ + e-
 130 June 22, 2021

REDUCTION
⚫ The substance gains one or more electrons.
⚫ decrease in oxidation number
⚫ Act as an oxidising agent (oxidant)
⚫ Example :
Cl2 + 2e- 🡪 2Cl-
 131 6/22/2021

OXIDATION NUMBER
Oxidation numbers of any atoms can be determined
by applying the following rules:

1. In a free element (neutral), as an atom or a molecule the

oxidation number is zero.
Example:
Na = 0 Cl2 = 0
Br2 = 0 O2 = 0
Mg = 0
MATTER
 132 6/22/2021

OXIDATION NUMBER
2. For monoatomic ion, the oxidation number is
equal to the charge on the ion.
Example:
Na+ = +1 Mg2+ = +2
Al3+ = +3 S2- = -2

MATTER
 133 6/22/2021

OXIDATION NUMBER
3. Fluorine and other halogens always have oxidation
number of -1 in its compound. Only have a positive
number when combine with oxygen.

Example:
Oxidation number of F in NaF = -1
Oxidation number of Cl in HCl = -1
Oxidation number of Cl in Cl2O7 = +7
 134 6/22/2021

OXIDATION NUMBER
4. Hydrogen has an oxidation number of +1 in its
compound except in metal hydrides which
hydrogen has an oxidation number of -1

Example:
Oxidation number of H in HCl = +1
Oxidation number of H in NaH = -1
Oxidation number of H in MgH2 = -1
MATTER
 135 6/22/2021

OXIDATION NUMBER
5. Oxygen has an oxidation number of -2 in most
of its compound.

Example:
Oxidation number of O in MgO = -2
Oxidation number of O in H2O = -2

MATTER
 136 6/22/2021

Two (2) exceptional cases for oxygen

Oxygen in peroxides, its oxidation number is -1
Example:
Oxidation number of O in H2O2 = -1

When combine with fluorine (F), posses a positive

oxidation number
Example:
Oxidation number of O in OF2 = +2

MATTER
 137 6/22/2021

OXIDATION NUMBER
6. Neutral molecule :
sum of the oxidation number molecule = zero.

Example:
Oxidation number of H2O = 0
Oxidation number of HCl = 0
Oxidation number of KMnO4 = 0

MATTER
 138 6/22/2021

OXIDATION NUMBER
7. Polyatomic ions:
total oxidation number = nett charge of the ion.
of ions/molecule

Example:
Oxidation number of KMnO4- = -1
Oxidation number of Cr2O72- = -2
Oxidation number of NO3- = -1
MATTER
 139 6/22/2021

EXAMPLE 21
Assign the oxidation number of Cr in Cr2O72-.
Solution :
Cr2O7 = -2
2 Cr + 7 (-2) = -2
2 Cr = + 12
Cr = + 6

MATTER
 140 6/22/2021

PRACTICE 25
1. Assign the oxidation number of Mn in the following chemical
compounds.
i. MnO2 ii. MnO4-

2. Assign the oxidation number of Cl in the following chemical

compounds.
i. KClO3 ii. Cl2O72-

3. Assign the oxidation number of following:

i. Cr in K2Cr2O7
ii. U in UO22+ MATTER

iii. C in C2O42-
 141 June 22, 2021

LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of this topic, students should be
able to:
a) Define limiting reactant and percentage
yield.
b) Perform stoichiometric calculations using
mole concept including reactant and
percentage yield.
 142 June 22, 2021

LIMITING REACTANT &

PERCENTAGE YIELD
Limiting reactant
▪ When reactants react with one another completely, they are
said to react exactly according to the stoichiometric
proportion
▪ However, in many chemical processes the quantity of
reactants used are such that the amount of one reactant is in
excess while the second reactant is completely consumed.
▪ The reactant which is completely consumed is called
limiting reactant.
▪ The reactant which is in excess is called excess reactant.
 143

The Cheese Sandwich Analogy

Excess 3 slices of cheese

Reactant:
bread
9 slices of Bread

Limiting reactant:
cheese
Mdm. Shahirah Mansor
 144
No of
moles
excess
reactant

No of
% yield moles
product
Importance
of Limiting
Reactant

Mass of
Mass of excess
products reactant
leftover
 145 June 22, 2021

Limiting Reactant & Percentage

Yield
Percentage yield
� The percentage yield is the ratio of the actual yield
(obtained from experiment) to the theoretical yield
multiplied by 100%
Obtained form
experiment

Obtained form
calculation
 146

STEPS TO DETERMINE LIMITING REACTANT

• Find no of moles of both reactants

❶
• Choose ONE reactant & ASSUME it as L.R.
❷
• Identify limiting and excess reactant
❸
• FOUND!!! Use L.R to determine moles of other
❹ substances Mdm. Shahirah Mansor
 147

EXAMPLE 21
In one process, 637.2 g NH3 are allowed to react with 1142 g of
CO2 as equation below:
2NH3 (g) + CO2 (g) → (NH2)2CO (aq) + H2O (l)

a) Which one is limiting reactant?

b) How much of the excess reagent (in grams) is left at the end
of the reaction?
c) Calculate the percentage yield if 65.0 g of (NH2)2CO was
obtained from the experiment.
d) Calculate the percentage yield of (NH2)2CO if the mass
obtained from the experiment is 1000.00 g.
 148

Solution
a) To find limiting reactant,
Step1 : Convert their masses into no. of mol
Amount
mol of NH3 = mass/Mr available

= 637.2 g / 17 = 37.48 mol

mol of CO2 = mass/Mr
= 1142 g / 44 = 25.95 mol
Mdm. Shahirah Mansor
 149

Solution
Step 2 : Make Assumption
Assume that NH3 as limiting reactant,
From balanced equation:
2 mol NH3 ≡ 1mol CO2
37.48 mol NH3 = y
Thus, 37.48 mol NH3 will react with,
y = (37.48 x 1) / 2 = 18.74 mol of CO2 Amount needed

COMPARE amount available with amount needed!

Mdm. Shahirah Mansor

 150

� 🡪 Since there are 25.95 mol of CO2 present,

∴ NH3 must be limiting reactant and CO2 excess reactant.

REMARKS: If,
amount needed > amount available : it is LIMITING
REACTANT
amount needed < amount available : it is EXCESS
REACTANT

Mdm. Shahirah Mansor

 151

Solution

(b) Number of moles of CO2 react with NH3 = 18.74 mol

The no. of mol of excess CO2; 25.95 – 18.74 = 7.21 mol
Thus, mass of CO2 left over = no. of mol x Mr
= 7.21 x 44 = 317.24 g

Mdm. Shahirah Mansor

 152 June 22, 2021

PRACTICE 27
1. 10.00 g of Zn are added into a 50.0 mL
hydrochloric acid solution with a molarity of 0.20
M to form H2 and ZnCl2. Calculate:
a) The amount (in mol) of H2 produced
b) The amount (in mol) of excess reactant remains
after the reaction is complete.

(5.0 x 10-3 mol, 0.148 mol )

 153 June 22, 2021

PRACTICE 28
Carbon tetrachloride was prepared by reacting 100 g of
carbon disulfide with 100 g of chlorine according to the
reaction:
CS2 + 3Cl2 → CCl4 + S2Cl2
Calculate the percentage yield if 65.0 g of CCl4 was
obtained from the experiment. (Mr: CS2 = 76.2, Cl2 = 71.0,
CCl4 = 154 )

(89.8%)
 154

DILUTION

Step 1 : Preparation of solution (stock solution)

n=M M= concentration (mol/L)
V = volume (L)
V
 155

DILUTION
Step 2 : Dilution of solution

Dilution : Procedure preparing a less concentrated

solution from a more concentrated solution
(stock solution).
 156

DILUTION

Moles before dilution = Moles after dilution

ni = nf

Mi Vi =Mf Vf

i – initial concentration (concentrated)

f – final concentration (diluted)

Mdm. Shahirah Mansor

 157

TITRATION Ma Va a
=
M b Vb b

Example:
2HCl(aq) + 1Na2CO3(aq) → 2NaCl(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)