Making deals is something human do all the time Specific Cognitive Abilities needed to make deals & to avoid being cheated
Lida Cosmides & John Tobby (1992)
Recognize many different people Remember one’s past interaction with people Communicate one’s belief and desires to others Understand the beliefs and desires to others Represent the cost and benefit of items service that being exchanged Social Cognition Thinking about one’s own thoughts, feelings, motives, and behaviors, and those of other people Thinking about the self, other people, and social relationships I. The Development of Self A. The Development of a Concept of Self Some core concepts in the study of self Self – • A person’s awareness (& potentially definition) Concept of one’s self, including physical and psychological characteristics and skills. • Involves knowledge of the self, as reflected in toddlers, by visual-recognition. Self – Esteem • The evaluative component of the self. • The judgements people make of their general worth as a person and the feelings associated with their judgement. 5 Area of Self-Esteem Scholastic competence Social competence Behavioral conduct Athletic competence Physical appearance Self – • The extent to which a person views him or Efficacy herself as an effective individual • The confidence one has in being able to control events in one’s surrounding • Develops with experience
Identity • A self-portrait of the different pieces of the self
Formation integrated in a coherent way, including: • Physical aspects • Sexual aspects • Ideological aspects • Intellectual aspects • Relational aspects • Vocational aspects • Cultural/ethnic aspects • Who am I? What do I want to be? Early signs of self- Awareness Types of Early Self-Concept (Case & Lewis, 1991) Implicit Self sometimes referred to as the “I”-self The character of infants from birth about 15 to 18 months old. Michael Lewis termed it as “the machinery of the self.” At this age, the infants has no self- awareness and are only able to distinct between themselves and others and the realization that “I can cause anything.” Explicit Self sometimes referred to as the “me”-self It involves a conscious awareness of the self or the “Idea of me.” Self-Concept 1. By 18 months old 4. Early & Middle Adolescent Most children recognizes Adolescents develop different themselves in a mirror selves that vary with social context. 2. Pre-School Age They often feel confused Children typically describes about these opposing selves. themselves in terms of their They feel extremely concerned physical feature, things they about what others think about do, where they live or who them. is in their family 5. Late Adolescent & Early 3. Childhood to Adolescent Adulthood Children’s self-description in Preoccupation with what others psychological terms increase think decreases and the and differentiate different attributes of the self in different context are not seen as opposing B. The Development of Self- Esteem the judgement people make of their general self- worth and the feelings associated with those judgements Self-esteem can be viewed as a product of 2 internal assessments: The discrepancy between the perceived self and the ideal self Support from social others Self-Esteem & Self-Worth Pre-School Children Adolescence Children distinguish two At the beginning of categories of self-esteem: adolescence, children’s Their physical & cognitive self-esteem typically competence and their declines some often general competence associated with the By the 3rd/4th Grade transition to high-school. Self-esteem then Children differentiate among increased again in most five categories of self- adolescents. Many worth/ adolescences, experience self-esteem temporary period, of They become more realistic discomfort that are soon with their own competence overcome. C. The Development of Self- Efficacy People’s belief about their capabilities to produce designated levels of performance that exercise influence over events that affect their lives.” (Bandura, 1994, p.71) It is the confidence one has in being able to control events in one’s surroundings. It is a person’s perception of his or her ability to reach a specific goal. Begins early, infants learn that they can exert some control over their environment 3-4 months learns that their actions has consequences The Optimistic Child Positive sense of self efficacy is facilitated by a generally optimistic (and often unrealistic) opinion of their own abilities. Believes that they know more than they actually do and can do more than they actually can provides them with positive perceptions of their own skills. Can make relatively accurate predictions of how other children are likely to perform but gets overly optimistic in predicting their own future which is due to wishful thinking (concept originally introduced by Piaget) Overestimates their abilities which enhances their self- efficacy and gives them confidence to attempt new things Produces more positive outcomes than realistic children The Possible Pitfalls of Overestimating One’s Abilities Embarrassment that comes from publicly displaying the skills that you do not have Can cause injury especially boys who overestimates their physical abilities. Childhood by its very nature involves reaching beyond one’s current abilities. D. Building an Identity Self – complicated concept with many different components that develops more in infancy and childhood. Identity – is a self-portrait od the different pieces of self in a coherent and integrated mode. It is one of the main psychological challenges in adolescence. On Adolescent Identity Erik Erikson and the adolescent crisis Erik Erikson (1950, 1968) first modern psychologist to emphasize the importance of identity formation in psychological development in general, and particularly during adolescence. He is one of the first life span development psychologists. Focuses on developing a sense of adult identity “From all possible and imaginable relations, (adolescent) must make a series of ever-narrowing selections of personal, occupational, social and ideological commitments.” By reflection By interacting with others and responding to the reaction of other people to them Adolescence is the social transition between childhood and adulthood. Psychosocial moratorium – a sort of time-out when, where possible, young people have a chance to explore who they are and what they want to be, in both the near and distant future. They make decisions about their marital and vocational futures. Role confusion – when the sense of identity is not developed. Marcia’s identity status approach James Marcia (1980, 1994) extended Erikson’s ideas and develop the identity status approach, which pays special attention to occupational and ideological aspect of identity. Two dimensions of identity: Crisis( or exploration) Is the adolescent facing an identity crisis? Is the person actively involved personal search among different identity alternatives? Has the person resolved his or her crisis? Commitment Has the person already made a commitment to a particular identity? Is he or she showing a personal investment in that identity. Possible identity statuses & prominent psychological characteristics Identity No crisis, Apathy; at risk of drug use; lack of intimate diffusion no commitment relationships with peers Identity No crisis, Conformity to authority; rely on others to foreclosure commitment make important decisions for them Adolescent does not actually experience a personal searching period and choose an identity, but rather assumes other people’s occupational and ideological identity. Identity Crisis, Highly anxious; unhappy; reject authority moratorium no commitment Identity Crisis overcome, Socially mature; high in achievement achievement with commitment motivation; more involved in careers People in the diffusion and moratorium statuses tend to make a commitment, and move into identity achievement status. Many adolescent in the foreclosure status, who experience no crisis, tend to remain in this state into young adulthood Factors influencing identity formation David Shaffer (2009) Level of cognitive development Relationship with parents Education Cultural-historical references The Development of Ethnic Identity Aspects of Ethnic Identity (Martha Benal & colleagues, 1993) Ethnic self-identification – children identify themselves as a member of their ethnic group. Ethnic constancy – children realize that importance aspects of their ethnic group are constant over time and situations and that they will always be a member of ethnic group. Ethnic-role behavior – children engage in behaviors or take on roles that characterize their ethnic group. Ethnic knowledge – children became aware that their ethnic group has certain features, such as customs, types of food, language, that distinguish it from other groups. Ethnic feelings and preferences – children have positive feelings about and preferences for characteristics of their ethnic group Developing a strong sense of identity show healthy psychological development for most adolescents. Bicultural identity – the ability of people to integrate their ethnic identity with that of the majority culture in which they are living. II. Children’s Theory of Mind Understanding Others Public self – the me that other people see Private self – the I that represents Theory of mind –a person’s concept of mental activity; used to refer to how children conceptualize mental activity and how they attribute intention to and predict the behavior of others. Belief-desire reasoning – the process whereby we explain and predict what people do based on what we understand their desires and beliefs to be. A. Basic Social-Cognitive Skills Underlying Theory of Mind Elementary social-cognitive abilities: self-awareness – an ability to differentiate oneself from other people seeing oneselfand other individuals as intentional agents - individuals who cause things to happen and whose behavior is designed to achieve some goal. Perspective taking – the ability to take point of view of others Egocentrism – preschoolers’ tendency to assume that other people see and understand the world as they do. Share attention (or joint attention) Is where two people both attending to the same thing or even and sharing that experience. Is more than a two-way ( or dyadic) relationship, but involves at least a two people and a third object (which can be another person) meaning a three-way or triadic. Not something babies come into the world knowing how to do although they do seemed biased toward social stimuli from birth. By 2 or 3 months (or earlier) they can recognize self- produced, biological motion and soon turn to look into the same direction of another person. B. The Development of Mind Reading Mind Reading one central skill that is also requires other than shared attention. It is putting yourself in another person’s shoes (or mankind), and trying to figure out what he or she is thinking. False-Beliefs Tasks are the gold standard of mind-reading tasks, and it is not until about 4 years of age when children typically solve them. A type of task, used in theory-of-the-mind studies, in which the child must infer that another person holds a belief that is false Solving False-beliefs Tasks 1. Beginning around 9 months of age, infants: Will gaze in the direction that adults are looking or pointing Engage in repetitive interaction with an adult and an object Imitate an adult’s actions Point or hold up objects to another person 2. These abilities increase over the second year of life 3. Most 3-year-old children cannot solve the false-belief tasks; however, they have some understanding that other people have desires and knowledge different from their own. 4. Most 4-year-old children can pass false-belief tasks. They are capable of mind reading (that is adopting others’ perspective and realizing that other people’s feelings, thoughts, beliefs, and knowledge can be different from their own) Despite the impressive evidence that most 3 year old children can’t solve false-belief tasks, they seem to have some understanding that other people have desires and knowledge different their own. There is some evidence that 2.5 and 3 year old children can pass standard false-belief tasks, but only when implicit (unconscious and not verbalize) as opposed to explicit (available to conscious awareness and verbalizable) measures are considered. Influences on Children’s Performance on False-belief Tasks Factors: Attachment Parenting styles Parent-child communication Language skills Maternal warmth The extent to which mothers use mental state talk Executive function the basic cognitive abilities involved in planning, executing, and inhibiting actions Children need basic-level information-processing abilities to regulate their own behavior if they pass the task. 3- and 4- year old children’s performance on false- belief tasks is related to family size and structure Specifically having older but not younger sibling is associated with better theory of mind. Sibling always compete with one another with the older having the advantage, younger children are motivated to develop their latent talents The advanced forms of mind reading are typically absent or significantly delayed in one particular class of developmental disability, autism. Autism A developmental disorder characterized by severe social and communication disabilities. Nearly 30 genes associated with autism but no single gene or set of genes cause autism. One hypothesis is that the genes that are normally active by neuronal activity after birth malfunction, resulting in errors in synaptogenesis or other aspects of neural functioning. A part of the brain, the superior temporal sulcus (which is involved in dynamic processing of emotion), function abnormally in adults and children with autism when processing social stimuli Mind-blindness – or inability to read minds is claimed by Simon Baron-Cohen (1995, 2005) as the primary deficit of children with autism Some Red Flags of Autism Spectrum Disorder Impairment in social Lack of appropriate eye gaze interaction Lack of warm, joyful expressions Lack of sharing interest or enjoyment Lack of response to name Impairment in Lack of showing gestures communication Lack of coordination of nonverbal communication Unusual prosody ( little variation in pitch, odd intonation, irregular rhythm, unusual voice quality)
Repetitive behaviors Repetitive movements with objects
and restricted interests Repetitive movements or posturing of body, arms, hands, o4r fingers C. Extending Theory of the Mind Children’s belief in Fantasy Children extend their theory-of- mind abilities to help explain some natural phenomena not commonly associated to with social patterns Animism - Preschool tend to treat inanimate objects as if they were alive Promiscuous teleology children’s tendency to reason about events and objects in terms of purpose. Deborah Kelemen (2004) use this term to refer it to such thinking Teleology – the tendency to reason about events in terms of purpose III. The Development of Social Learning Social Learning
Human’s ability to learn from one another that
that permitted our ancestors to attain the ecological domain to essentially be the master of all they surveyed. The acquisition of social information and behavior in which one individual comes to behave similarly to others (Boesch & Tomas, 1998) A. Types of Social Learning Mimicry - the duplication of a behavior without any understanding of the global of that behavior. Emulation - one individual observes another interacting with an object to achieve a specific goal. The first individual then interacts with the object attempting to attain the same end but does not duplicate the same behavior as the model to achieve the goal. Imitative learning - reproduction of observed behaviour before to achieve a specific goal. This requires an understanding of the goal that the model had in mind, as well as the reproduction of important components out the observed behavior. Teaching (Instructed learning) - actor A modifies his or her behavior only in the presence of another, actor B, without attaining any immediate benefits. As a result of encouraging or discourage B's behavior, B acquires a new skill. To be done effecticely, teachingrequires both the instructor and studenttake the perspective of the other. Mirror neurons A neuron, found in both monkeys and humans, that fires both when an individual observes the same action performed by another. B. What kind of Social Learning Do Children Engage in and How Does it Develop? All culture have religion and a belief in some supernatural being or power might a believe in supernatural agents be a by Product of our Developing Symbolic System. Deborah Kelemen(2004)-states that as we have just seen, young children believe that things occurs for a reason ,and they endow fantasy creature with opinion desires and knowledge. Paul Bloom(2004)-argued that children’s distinction between Social and Nonsocial phenomenon seen early in Infancy ,sets the stage for humans natural distinction between body and soul. Rene-Descartes-the 18th century French Philosopher-status that distinction referring to nonhuman animals as beast-machine, or Automata without minds of souls.