Unit III

Pressure Measurement
• Content
• Units of pressure
• Pressure relationship
• Classification of pressure sensors
• Manometers

• Learning outcomes: After learning the lesson students should

be able to
– Describe the different units of pressure and conversion
– Classify the pressure sensors based on their principle. Function etc.
– Describe the different types, principle and working of Manometers
– Calculate gauge pressure using single tube and differential u tube
manometer
 Measurement of Pressure
• Definition: Amount of Force applied per unit area on which
it acts
• Units of Measure
Unit MKS CGS English

Force Newton dyne pound

Length meter cm inch
Pressure N/m2 (pa) dyne/cm2 psi

• 1 Pa=1 N/m2=10-5 kg/cm2 1 Kgf =9.81 N

• 1 atmosphere =14.7 psi =760mmHg =101.325 KPa = 1 bar
• 1 torr =1 mm of Hg
• 1 kg/cm2 =14.7 psi
• 1 psi= 6.9 kPa
 Pressure Relationships
• Gauge pressure (PSIG)
• Absolute pressure (PSIA)
• Vacuum pressure (PSIV) or (in Hg)
• Atmospheric pressure (14.7 psi)

Absolute Pressure = Atmospheric Press. + Gauge Press.

Vacuum = Atmospheric Pressure - Absolute Pressure

• An example of gauge pressure would be a tire pressure

gauge. When the tire pressure gauge reads 0 PSI, there is
really 14.7 PSI (atmospheric pressure) in the tire.
• 220 kPa/32psi: 320 kPa/46.7 psi
 Pressure Relationships
30 PSIA 15.3 PSIG

GAGE
PRESSURE
(PSIG)
ABSOLUTE
PRESSURE
(PSIA) 14.7 PSIA Atmospheric Pressure 0 PSIG
(Average at Sea Level) 0 In. Hg

VACUUM
(in. Hg)

0 PSIA 29.92 In. Hg

 Marcus Oil and Chemical Tank Explosion
Location: Houston, TX

Accident Occurred On: 12/03/2004

• The Marcus Oil facility refines polyethylene waxes for industrial use.
• The crude waxes, which are obtained as a byproduct from the petrochemical
industry, contain flammable hydrocarbons such as hexane.
• The waxes are processed and purified inside a variety of steel process vessels.
• The vessel that exploded was a horizontal tank 12 feet in diameter, 50 feet
long, and operated at a pressure of approximately 67 pounds per square
inch.
 • The blast, which was felt up to 20 miles from the plant site, ignited large
fires that burned for seven hours, and two firefighters were injured during
the emergency response. Off-site buildings near the facility - including two
churches, a house, and a social club - exhibited structural damage, such as
Several residents were cut
broken windows and cracked walls.
by flying glass, and steel
fragments from the
explosion were thrown up
to a quartermile from the
plant.
Defective welds had decreased
the strength of the vessels by more
than 75 percent.

The repair welds did not meet accepted industry

quality standards for pressure vessels.
Marcus Oil did not use a qualified welder or
proper welding procedure to reseal the vessels
and did not pressure-test the vessels after the
welding was completed.
 Methods of Pressure Measurement

Manometers Elastic Electrical Vacuum Balancing

pressure pressure Pressure force method
transducers transducer measurement

1. Dead Weight
tester
1. Resistance type PT 2. Ring balanced
1. Barometer 1. Bourdon tube
2. Potentiometer PT
2. U tube 2. Diaphragm 1. McLeod
3. Inductive type PT
3. well type 3. Bellows 4. Capacitive type PT gauge
4. Inclined 5. Piezoelectric PT 2. Thermal
tube conductivity
gauge
3. Ionization
gauge
 Instrument selection
[1] Below 1 mm of Hg
- Manometers and low pressure gauges
[2] Between 1mm of Hg to 1000 atm
- Bourdon tube
- Diaphragm gauges
- Bellow pressure gauge
- Dead-weight pressure gauge
[3] vacuum (760 torr to 10-9 torr)
- McLeod gauge
- Thermal conductivity and ionization gauge
[4] High pressure (1000 atm and above)
- Electrical resistance type
- Bourdon tube
 Manometers
• All the manometers work on the effect of hydrostatic
pressure exerted by a liquid column.

• In manometer unknown pressure is determined by balancing

it against some known pressure.

• Used as standards because free from friction or hysteresis

effects.

» U-tube manometer
» Inclined tube manometer
» Well type manometer
» The barometer
 U-tube manometer
Used to measure gauge pressure differential pressure, absolute pressure

• Contains water or mercury in a U-shaped glass tube.

• Mercury: for high pressure measurement
• Water: low pressure measurement, Carbon tetrachloride, oil,
aniline
• One end of the U tube is exposed to the unknown pressure
field (P)
• the other end is connected to a atmospheric
pressure (Pref),
Water & Mercury Manometer
 Well type manometer
• Modification of U-tube manometer
• There is no fixed or reference
point in u-tube
• Difference in height – is measured
• In well type: large reservoir acts as
reference leg: maintained at
fixed level
• A small bore tube attached to it
:acts as an indicating column
• A direct scale is provided on it
• Changes in well liquid level
compensated by sliding the
scale zero to match this level.
PH-PL= ρh(1 + A1/A2)
A1: Area of well
A2 : Area of tube
PH-PL= ρh Sin θ(1 + A1/A2)
A1: Area of well
A2 : Area of tube
  Liquid Manometers

U-tube Well Inclined

Range 3-100KPa 3-100KPa 1 mm to 300 mm of

water

Accuracy ±0.25-0.1 F.S ±½ of minor scale ±½ of minor scale

graduation graduation

Wetted Parts Cast iron, stainless Stainless steel, Acrylic, stainless

or Media steel, PVC, glass glass, steel, aluminum,
Compatibility glass

Mounting Wall, table Wall, table, flush Wall, table

front, pipe

Relative Cost Low Low/medium Medium

Barometer
• The barometer is used for detecting the atmospheric pressure.

• The glass tube is open at one end at least 84 cm in height.

• Filled with mercury & inverted into an open mercury bath.

• Mercury in the tube adjusts until the weight of the mercury

column balances the atmospheric force exerted on the reservoir.

• High atmospheric pressure places more force on the reservoir,

forcing mercury higher in the column.

• Low pressure allows the mercury to drop to a lower level in the

column by lowering the force placed on the reservoir.
• It has been used in weather forecasting since the late 19th
century.
• Summary of Manometers:

1. Use: for static pressure measurement, differential

pressure measurement

2. U-tube & Well-type: 3 to 100 KPa.

3. Inclined: 1 mm to 300 mm of water.

4. Simple, inexpensive, high accuracy & sensitivity.

5. Disadvantages: not used in control systems, leveling is

required, requires large space, nonportable.
6. No over-range protection.
• Content
• Elastic pressure transducers
• Electrical pressure transducers

• Learning outcomes: After learning the lesson

students should be able to
– Describe the principle and working of elastic and
electrical pressure transducers
– Working substances used for pressure sensors
– Select suitable sensor for particular application
Elastic Pressure Transducers

• Transducer converts one form of energy to other form

• Pressure gauges uses elastic flexible element as primary
sensing element which converts pressure energy into
mechanical displacement
• As pressure changed the flexible element moved, and this
motion was used to rotate a pointer.

1. Bourdon tube pressure gauge: :Vacuum 0-30 inch of Hg as

well as 0-15PSI to 0- 100,000 PSIG

2. Diaphragm pressure transducers: 0-5 mm Hg to 0-50 psia

3. Bellows:0-100 mm of Hg to 0-2000 PSIG

Construction: MOST WIDELY USED Material Young's Modulus
(Modulus of
Elasticity)(109 N/m2,
Bourdon tubes are generally are of three types: GPa)
96 - 120
1. C-type Bronze
 
Copper 117
2. Helical type Stainless 180-200
3. Spiral type Steel
Titanium 110
• Made up of Material :
Beryllium  287
• Phosphor bronze, stainless steel, beryllium, phospher 120
bronze
copper
1. C-shaped  Bourdon  tube
• The  C-shaped  Bourdon  tube  has  a  hollow, elliptical cross
section.
• It is closed at one end and is connected to the fluid pressure
at the other end.

• When pressure is applied, its cross-section becomes   more

circular, causing   the   tube to straighten out until the force of
the  fluid pressure is balanced by the elastic resistance  of the
tube material.

• Since the open end of the tube is anchored in a fixed position,

changes in pressure move the closed end.
• A pointer is attached to the closed end of the tube through a
linkage arm and gear and pinion assembly , which rotates the
pointer  around  a  graduated  scale.
• Materials used: brass, phospher bronze, monel, beryllium,
copper, stainless steel.

• Advantages:
• Low cost & simple construction
• Wide pressure range
• High accuracy in relation to cost

• Disadvantages:
• Some hysteresis errors: kept minimum by proper heat
treatment.
• Susceptibility to shock or vibration.
Bourdon Tubes
Diaphragm Pressure Gauge

They are used to measure gauge pressures over very low ranges.
• Principle:
• Diaphragm can be in the form of flat, corrugated or dished plates
• When pressure is applied on either sides of the tight diaphragm,
by which it gets deflected.
• This deflection of the diaphragm is proportional to the
differential pressure across it.
• The resisting spring is added to limit the deflection of
diaphragm
• The motion of diaphragm operates indicating or recoding type of
instrument.
• Two types of diaphragm pressure gauges are:

1. Metallic diaphragms gauge: flexible circular discs

either flat or corrugated.
(brass or phosphor-bronze )

2. Slack diaphragms gauge (synthetic rubber, neoprene,

leather, Teflon, nylon or decron) :0.01-0.4 mm Hg

This pressure gauge is widely used to measure pressure of

a reactor or closed container. 
• 1) Metallic diaphragms: These elements are flexible circular
discs, either flat or corrugated.

• These elements convert pressure signal to pointer deflection.

• The metal is heat treated before forming a diaphragm to
produce maximum elastic limit.
• After forming, the diaphragms are heat treated to relive
internal stresses.
• A diaphragm is usually designed so that the deflections versus
pressure characteristics are as linear as possible over a
specified pressure range & with minimum of hysteresis &
minimum shift in zero point.
• The diaphragm material is chosen such that maximum
deflection at the centre is one third of its thickness, so as to
keep material within elastic limit.
• 2) Non metallic diaphragms: very bendable diaphragms are
used and so they can be utilized to measure vacuum and
low pressures available.
• Pressure range:
For non-metallic diaphragm
• Minimum= 0 to 2 inch of water
Maximum=0 to 400 psi

• Advantages:
1. Small in size and cost is moderate
2. By using corrosion resistant material it has long life
3. They have good linearity
4. Posses high over range characteristics
Limitations:
1. Cannot be used for high pressure
2. Vibration will affect the reading
Diaphragm Pressure Guage
Bellows

• Used to measure absolute

pressures (normal as well as
low pressures)
• More sensitive than bourdon
type gauge

• A bellows is a closed vessel

with sides that can expand
and contract, like an
accordion.

• Brass, phosphor bronze,

stainless steel, beryllium
copper etc.
Spring Loaded Bellows

Used for the range

down to 155 mm of
Hg.(3psi)
Gauge pressure: 0 to
2000 psig

Bellows movement is opposed by the compression of spring.

Differential Pressure Bellows

• Differential pressure arrangement: pressure

difference of 50 psi can be used.
Bellow

Advantages:

1. Cost is moderate
2. Low to moderate pressure
range
3. Used for absolute and
differential pressures

Unsuitable for high

pressure range
Electric Pressure Transducers

Why Electrical Pressure Transducers?

• Transmission requirements for remote display as electric signal
transmission can be through cable or cordless.

• Electric signals give quicker responses and high accuracy in

digital measurements.

• The linearity property of the electric signal produced to pressure

applied favors simplicity.

• They can be used for extreme pressure applications, i.e. high

vacuum and pressure measurements.

• EPTs are immune to hysteresis, shock and mechanical vibrations.

Electric Pressure Transducers

• Electrical pressure transducer consists of 3 elements:

1. Pressure sensing element such as a bellow , a diaphragm or a
bourdon tube
2. Primary conversion element e.g. resistance or voltage
3. Secondary conversion element
Transducer is a device converts one form of energy into other form.

Mechanical motion first converted to change in resistance & then

this change in resistance is converted into change in current or
voltage.
The Electrical Output of Pressure Transducers
• Pressure transducers are generally available with three
types of electrical output:
– Mili-volt, amplified voltage and 4-20mA

• Mili-volt Output Pressure Transducers:

• The output of the mili-volt transducer is around 30mV.
• The actual output is directly proportional to the pressure
transducer input power or excitation.
• If the excitation fluctuates, the output will also change. So
regulated power supplies are suggested .
• Because the output signal is so low, the distances between the
transducer and the readout instrument should also be kept
relatively short.
• Voltage Output Pressure Transducers:
• The output is normally 0-5Vdc or 0-10Vdc.
• The output of the transducer is not normally a direct function
of excitation.
• Because they have a higher level output these transducers are
not as susceptible to electrical noise as millivolt transducers.

• 4-20 mA Output Pressure Transducers:

• Since a 4-20mA signal is least affected by electrical noise
and resistance in the signal wires, these transducers are best
used when the signal must be transmitted long distances.
• These transducers are used in applications where the lead
wire must be 1000 feet or more.
Types of Electric Pressure Transducers

• Strain gauge pressure transducers

• Capacitive pressure transducers

• Potentiometer pressure transducers

• Reluctance pressure transducers (LVDT)

• Piezeoelectric pressure transducers

Strain Gauge Pressure Transducer

• Principle:
• A strain gauge is a passive type resistance pressure transducer whose
electrical resistance changes when it is stretched or compressed.

• It can be attached to the pressure sensing elestic element.

• So that when the elestic element flexes due to process pressure
applied to it, strain gauge compresses or stretches.

• This deformation causes the change in length & c/s area & hence its
resistance changes.

• This change in resistance is converted into voltage by connecting it to

wheatstone bridge circuit.

• The bridge output voltage is a measure of pressure sensed by strain

gauge.
Strain Gauge
• Material of construction: The most popular alloys used for
strain gages are copper-nickel alloys and nickel-chromium
alloys.
• Typical strain gauge resistances range from 30 Ohms to 3
kOhms (unstressed).

• This resistance may change only a fraction of a percent for

the full force range of the gauge, given the limitations
imposed by the elastic limits of the gauge material and of
the test specimen.

• strain gauges are foil types : resistive

• foil which is mounted on a backing
• material(ceramic).
Strain Gauge Construction:
 Types of Strain Gauges
Quarter & half bridge strain circuit
 Types of Strain Gauges
Full-bridge strain circuit
Advantages:
Strain Gauge Pressure Transducer
1. Strain gauge pressure transducers are used for narrow
pressure span and for differential pressure measurments

2. Available for pressure ranges as low as 3 inches of water

to as high as 200,000 psig

3. Good accuracy (Inaccuracy ranges from 0.1 % of span to

0.25 % of full scale)
4. They contain no moving parts
5. They are small and easy to install
6. fast speed of response
7. Good shock & vibration characteristics
• Disadvantages

 Their cost is moderate to high(could be offset by reduced

installation cost)
 Electrical readout is necessary in these transducers
 They are require constant voltage supply
 They require temperature compensation due to problem
presented by temperature variations
Potentiometer Pressure Transducer

• There is a potentiometer (basically a variable resistance)

which is made by winding resistance wire around an
insulated cylinder.

• A moveable electrical contact, called a wiper, slides along

the cylinder, touching the wire at one point on each turn.

• A mechanical linkage from the pressure sensing element

(such as bellows, a diaphragm) controls the position of the
wiper on the potentiometer.

• The position of wiper determines the resistance of the

potentiometer which in turn determines the pressure.
Potentiometer Pressure Transducer

• An increase in pressure makes the bourdon tube straighten

out partially.
• This motion causes the linkage to move the wiper across the
winding on potentiometer as the wiper moves; it increases
the resistance between terminals A and C which is equal to
the pressure sensed by the bourdon tube.
• Advantages:
 These transducer are simpler & inexpensive than
others.
 Resistance can be easily converted to voltage.
 Easy to design in specific applications.

• Disadvantages:
 They have finite resolution: wiper moves from one turn
to other. Small change than increment : not indicated
 Wiper moves back & froth across the wire: wear out.
 Wiper makes & break the contact with the turn of wire
: noise signals are produced.
Capacitive Pressure Transducer

C=ε0 εr A/d
Where,
C = the capacitance of a capacitor in farad
A = area of each plate in m2
d = distance between two plates in m
εr= dielectric constant or relative permittivity
of the dielectric material between the plates
ε0 = 8.854*10^-12 farad/m2
permittivity of space 

Thus, capacitance can be varied by changing

distance between the plates, area of the plate or
value of the dielectric medium between the plates. i.e.C α (1/d)
Any change in these factors cause change in
capacitance.
In capacitive transducers, pressure is utilized to vary any of the above mentioned
factors which will cause change in capacitance and that is a measureable by any
suitable electric bridge circuit and is proportional to the pressure.
• Advantages:
 Rapid response to change in pressure.10-20ms
 Extremely sensitive
 Withstand vibrations & shock
 Good linearity and high resolution

• Disadvantages:
 Metallic parts must be insulated from each other.
 Performance must be affected by dirt or contaminants.
Reluctance Pressure Transducer

• Reluctance in magnetic circuit is equivalent to resistance in an

electrical circuit.

• Whenever coupling or spacing between two magnetic coils

changes, then reluctance between them also changes.

• So pressure sensor can be used to change the spacing between

the coils by moving one part of the magnetic circuit.

• This motion changes the reluctance between the coils which

causes the change voltage induced by one coil in other.

• This induced voltage can be interpreted as a change in pressure.

Reluctance Pressure
Potentiometer Transducer
Pressure Transducer

• Reluctance pressure transducer of several types.

• 1. Linear variable differential transformer (LVDT)
• 2. Servo pressure transducers

• LVDT is widely used inductive transducer that translates

linear motion into an electrical signal.
Advantages:
• High sensitivity
• Rugged construction
• Simple construction
• Small size & light body
• Linear relationship
• Infinite resolution
• Less hysteresis, hense repeatability is excellent

• Disadvantages:
• Temperature effects
Piezoelectric Pressure Transducer

• These devices utilizes the piezoelectric characteristics of

certain crystalline and ceramic materials (such as quartz) to
generate an electrical signals.
• Signals generated by crystals decays rapidly so unsuitable for
static force or pressure measurements
• Range 5,000 to 10,000 psig
• Basic Principle:
• “when pressure is applied on piezoelectric crystals (such as a quartz), an
electrical charge is generated”.
• Some of piezoelectric materials are barium titanate sintered powder, crystal
of quartz, tourmaline, Rochelle salts.

• Construction and Working:

• It consists of diaphragm by which pressure is transmitted to the

piezoelectric crystal Y1.

• This crystal generates electrical signal which is amplified by a charge

amplifier.

• A second piezoelectric crystal Y2 is included to compensate for any

acceleration of the device during use (vibration).

• Signal from the compensating crystal are amplified by second charge

amplifier.
 Mechanical Stress

Piezoelectric
Material
Output
Voltage

Plate Mechanical Stress

Piezoelectric Pressure Sensor

• A different amplifier which are used to substrates pressure
alone; all effects of acceleration are removed.

• Piezoelectric pressure transducers are used to measure very

high pressure that change very rapidly.

• Piezoelectric materials produced electrical voltage when they

are squeezed suddenly.
• The voltage disappears when the pressure stops changing.

• Piezoelectric pressure transducer may be used to measure a

pressure over a range up to 0-50,000 psi.
• However, piezoelectric transducers cannot measure steady
pressure.
• They respond only to changing pressures.
• Compressors, rocket motors, gasoline engines

• Advantages:
– No external power supply
– Very good response
– High sensitivity
– Good repeatability, stability
– Low hysteresis

• Disadvantages:
– Can not measure static pressure
– Sensitive to ambient temperature variations
 Vacuum measurement
• Pressure below atmospheric pressure
• 1 torr = 1 mm of Hg=1000 micron

1. McLeod gauge
2. Thermal Conductivity Gauge : Pirani gauge
3. Thermocouple gauge
Vacuum Measurement:

McLeod gauge
• McLeod gauges can cover vacuum ranges between 1 -10 -6
torr.

• Originally invented in 1878, the McLeod gauge is still used

today, mainly for calibrating other low pressure gauges.

• It uses the principle of Boyle’s law :P1V1 = P2V2;

• That is, if the temperature is held constant, the increase in
pressure is exactly proportional to the decrease in volume.

• A sample of gas from the system is isolated and reduced in

volume by a known amount. This reduction in volume
causes a proportional increase in the pressure of the gas.
• A known volume gas is compressed to a smaller volume whose final
value provides an indication of the applied pressure. The gas used
must obey Boyle’s law given by;

P1V1=P2V2
Where, P1 = Pressure of gas at initial condition (applied pressure).
P2 = Pressure of gas at final condition.
V1 = Volume of gas at initial Condition.
V2 = Volume of gas at final Condition.

Initial Condition == Before Compression.

Final Condition == After Compression.

A known volume gas (with low pressure) is compressed to a smaller

volume (with high pressure), and using the resulting volume and
pressure, the initial pressure can be calculated. This is the principle
behind the McLeod gauge operation.
• The McLeod gauge is operated as follows:

The pressure to be measured (P1) is applied to the top of the reference column of the
McLeod Gauge as shown in diagram. The mercury level in the gauge is raised by
operating the piston to fill the volume as shown by the dark shade in the diagram.
• When this is the case (condition – 1), the applied pressure fills the bulb and the
capillary.
• Now again the piston is operated so that the mercury level in the gauge increases. 
• When the mercury level reaches the cutoff point, a known volume of gas (V1) is
trapped in the bulb and measuring capillary tube.
• The mercury level is further raised by operating the piston so the trapped gas in the
bulb and measuring capillary tube are compressed.
• This is done until the mercury level reaches the “Zero reference Point” marked on the
reference capillary (condition – 2).
• In this condition, the volume of the gas in the measuring capillary tube is read directly
by a scale besides it. That is, the difference in height ‘H’ of the measuring capillary and
the reference capillary becomes a measure of the volume (V2) and pressure (P2) of the
trapped gas.

Now as V1,V2 and P2 are known, the applied pressure P1 can be calculated using
Boyle’s Law given by;

P1V1 = P2V2
Thermal Conductivity Gauge : Pirani gauge :

• The Pirani gauge is a robust thermal conductivity gauge used for

the measurement of the pressures in vacuum systems.
• It was invented in 1906 by Marcello Pirani.

• In this, two filaments (platinum),

act as resistances in two arms of
a Wheatstone bridge.
• The reference filament is immersed
in a fixed-gas pressure, while the
measurement filament is exposed to
system gas.

• A constant current flows through the bridge heats both filaments.

• Working:
• If the gas is at high pressure, gas molecules collide frequently with
the filament and absorb energy from the filament which results in
cooling of the filament.

• As the pressure of the gas molecules decreases the number of gas

molecules inside the chamber also goes down resulting in fewer
collisions with the filament.

• As a result the temperature of the filament increases because of

decreased cooling.

• Electrical resistance of a wire varies with temperature.

• If the gas pressure (or composition) around the measurement
filament is not identical to that around the reference filament, the
bridge is unbalanced and the degree of unbalance is a measure of
pressure.
Pirani gauge :
• The Pirani gauge is linear in the 10-2 to 10-4 torr range.

• Pirani gauges are inexpensive, convenient and reasonably accurate. They are
2% accurate at the calibration point and 10% accurate over the operating
range.

• Pirani gauges and their circuitry are typically 10 times faster than
thermocouple gauges.

• The thermal conductivity of each gas is different, so the gauge has to be

calibrated for the individual gas being measured.

• A Pirani gauge will not work to detect pressures above 1.0 torr, because,
above these pressures, the thermal conductivity of the gases no longer
changes with pressure.

• The Pirani gauge is linear in the 10-2 to 10-4 torr range. Above these pressures,
output is roughly logarithmic.
Thermocouple gauge:
• The system typically consists of a heated filament with
thermocouples attached to an external circuit .

• A constant current supply feeds

the filament, and the filament reaches
a temperature dependant on
thermal losses to the gas.

• At higher pressure, more molecules

hit the filament and remove more heat
energy, changing the thermocouple
voltage.
• The filament is heated by a constant current of 20-200 mA dc, and
the thermocouple generates an output of about 20 mV dc.
• Pressure range between 1 and 10-4 Torr.
Ionization Gauge :
Types of Ionization Gauge :
• Hot-cathode gauge (typical range: 1 x 10-2 to 1 x 10-10 torr)
• Cold-cathode gauge (typical range: 1 x 10-2 to 1 x 10-11 torr)

• In hot-cathode, electrons are emitted from a heated filament

and accelerated toward a positively charged cylindrical grid.

• Some of these electrons collide with gas molecules, causing

the production of positively charged ions, which are collected
at a negatively charged plate.

• where they create a current in a conventional ion-gauge

detector circuit.
• The amount of current formed is proportional to the gas
density or pressure.
Cold-cathode Gauge :

This gauge (also called a

Philips gauge or Penning
gauge) is based on the glow
discharge that occurs in gas at
low pressures in the presence
of a magnetic field.
Cold-cathode Gauge :

• The electrons emanating from the cathode are caused to spiral by a

magnetic field as they move across the tube to the anode.

• This spiraling of electrons increases the probability of collision

with any gas molecules present.

• Such collisions set free positively charged ions, which are attracted
to a negatively charged plate.
• The total discharge current (negative and positive ions) is used to
measure the pressure.

• The main advantages of cold-cathode devices are that there are no

filaments to burn out, they are unaffected by the inrush of air, and
they are relatively insensitive to vibration.
 Force Balanced Pressure Gauge
 Dead weight piston gauge
 Ring balance gauge
 Bell type gauge

• These are used to calibrated a wide range of

pressure measuring devices.
Dead weight piston gauge: Used for Calibrating
pressure gauges
• It works by loading the primary piston with c/s area A
with the amount of weight W that corresponds to
the desired calibration pressure (P=W/A).
• The force produced on a piston of known area is measured
directly by the weight it will support.
• It consist of accurately machined, bored primary piston
inserted in close fitting cylinder (c/s area of both piston &
cylinder are known).
• Piston is provided with the platform on which the standard
weight of known accuracy placed.
• Oil reservoir with check valve at its bottom.
• Pressure transducer to be calibrated.
• When pumping piston with screw is turned, fluid pressure is
applied to both gauge and primary piston (weight).
• When the weight start to lift, the gauge pressure should be
same as the pressure indicated by the weights.
• A Newton is the force necessary to accelerate a
mass of 1 kg at a rate of 1 meter per second per
second.
• The acceleration of gravity is 9.8 m/sec2
• The force due to gravity on a 1 kg mass is 9.8 N is
1 kg weight.
• 1 Newton = 0.102 kg weight  
• 1 Newton = 1 kg•m/s² = 105 g•cm/s² = 10 5 dyne
• In this condition of equilibrium, the pressure force of fluid is
balanced against the gravitational force of the weights plus the
friction drag.

Therefore, PA = Mg + F

Hence : P = Mg + F / A

where, P = pressure
M = Mass; Kg
g = Acceleration due to gravity ; m/s²
F = Friction drag; N
A = Equivalent area of piston – cylinder combination; m²

Thus the pressure P which is caused due to the weights placed on the
platform is calculated.
 Principle:
• The force produced by the difference of
pressures on the inside & outside of a bell is
balanced against a weight or against the force
produced by the compression of the spring.
• Bell suapended with open end downwords in
sealed chember
• Liquid: oil or mercury
 Bell type gauge
• Bell rises until upward force balanced by
apperant weight of bell
Ring Balanced Pressure Guage
Types Range Accuracy % Sensitivity Linearity
Manometer < 0.2 MPa 0.01 – 0.1  10-4 MPa Linear

Ring Balance < 0.2 MPa 0.2 – 0.5  10-3 MPa Nonlinear

Elastic Element 2 – 700 MPa 0.25 – 0.5  10-3 MPa Approx. linear

Bell Gauges 0.06 – 4 KPa 0.25  10-3 KPa Nonlinear

Strain Gauge 0 – 200 MPa 0.1 – 0.2 Order of KPa Linear

Reluctance 0 – 70 MPa 0.5 Order of KPa Linear

Capacitance 0 – 10 MPa 0.1 Order of KPa Approx. linear

Piezoelectric 0 – 70 MPa 0.5 - 1.0 Order of KPa Made Linear

Optical 0 – 70 MPa 0.1 Order of KPa Made Linear

 Silicon-on- Insulator Technology
• For a single crystal silicon, its resistivity changes under
stress.
• A resistor can be fabricated from silicon to exploit this
phenomenon.
• Such resistor is called a piezoresistor.
• Silicon-on- Insulator Technology- in which silicon
piezoresistor are isolated from silicon dioxide layer to
sustain high temperature.
6 bar differential press and 5000F
• Express pressure of 1.5 bar into
• 1) Pa
• 2) psi
• 3) cm of Hg
• 4) m of H2O
• 5) MN/cm2
• A pressure gauge and manometer both are attached to
a tank of gas to measure its pressure. Determine the
difference in level of mercury and water manometer if
pressure gauge reading of 80 kPa.

• Water=h=8.149 m
• Mercury=0.6 m
• A pressure gauge and manometer both are attached to
a tank of gas to measure its pressure. Determine the
difference in mercury level of manometer if pressure
gauge reading of 65 kPa.
• Specific gravity of oil=0.72.
• Density water=1000 kg/m3
• Density mercury=13600 kg/m3
• Hoil=0.75 m
• H water =0.3 m