Chapter 10

AP*
Chapter 10
Liquids and Solids

AP Learning Objectives
 LO 1.11 The student can analyze data, based on periodicity and the properties of
binary compounds, to identify patterns and generate hypotheses related to the
molecular design of compounds for which data are not supplied. (Sec 10.1)
 LO 2.1 Students can predict properties of substances based on their chemical
formulas, and provide explanations of their properties based on particle views.
(Sec 10.1-10.8)
 LO 2.3 The student is able to use aspects of particular models (i.e. particle
spacing, motion, and forces of attraction) to reason about observed differences
between solid and liquid phases and among solid and liquid materials. (Sec 10.1
-10.7)
 LO 2.11 The student is able to explain the trends in properties and/or predict
properties of samples consistently of particles with no permanent dipole on the
basis of London dispersion forces. (Sec 10.1)
 LO 2.13 The student is able to describe the relationships between the structural
features of polar molecules and the forces of attraction between the particles.
(Sec 10.1)
 LO 2.16 The student is able to explain the properties (phase, vapor pressure,
viscosity, etc.) of small and large molecular compounds in terms of the strengths
and types of intermolecular forces. (Sec 10.1 -10.7)
 LO 2.19 The student can create visual representations of ionic substances that
connect the microscopic structure to macroscopic properties, and/or use
representations to connect the microscopic structure to macroscopic properties
(e.g. boiling point, solubility, hardness, brittleness, low volatility, lack of
malleability, ductility, or conductivity). (Sec 10.3 -10.4, 10.8)
 LO 2.20 The student is able to explain how a bonding model involving
delocalized electrons is consistent with macroscopic properties of metal (e.g.
conductivity, malleability, ductility, and low volatility) and the shell model of the
atom. (Sec 10.4)
 LO 2.22 The student is able to design or evaluate a plan to collect and/or
interpret data needed to deduce the type of bonding in a sample of a solid. (Sec
10.3 -10.7)
 LO 2.23 The student can create a representation of an ionic solid that shows
essential characteristics of the structure and interactions present in the
substance. (Sec 10.7)
 LO 2.24 The student is able to explain a representation that connects properties
of an ionic solid to its structural attributes and to the interactions present at the
atomic level. (Sec 10.7)
 LO 2.25 The student is able to compare the properties of metal alloys with their
constituent elements to determine if an alloy has formed, identify the type of
alloy formed, and explain the differences in properties using particulate level
reasoning. (Sec 10.4)
 LO 2.26 Students can use the electron sea model of metallic bonding to predict
or make claims about the macroscopic properties of metals or alloys. (Sec 10.4)
 LO 2.27 The student can create a representation of a metallic solid that shows

of a metallic solid to its structural attributes and to the interactions present at
the atomic level. (Sec 10.4)
 LO 2.29 The student can create a representation of a covalent solid that shows
of a covalent solid to its structural attributes and to the interactions present at
 LO 2.31 The student can create a representation of a molecular solid that shows
substance. (Sec 10.3, 10.6)
of a molecular solid to its structure attributes and to the interactions present at
 LO 5.6 The student is able to use calculations or estimations to relate energy

changes associated with heating/cooling a substance to the heat capacity, relate
energy changes associated with a phase transition to the enthalpy of
fusion/vaporization, relate energy changes associated with chemical reaction to
the enthalpy of the reaction, and relate energy changes to PΔV work. (Sec 10.8)
 LO 5.9 The student is able to make claims and/or predictions regarding relative
magnitudes of the forces acting within collections of interacting molecules
based on the distribution of electrons within the molecules and the type of
intermolecular forces through which the molecules interact. (Sec 10.1 -10.7)
 LO 5.10 The student can support the claim about whether a process is a
chemical or physical change (or may be classified as both) based on whether the
process involves changes in intramolecular versus intermolecular interactions.
(Sec 10.8)
 LO 5.11 The student is able to identify the noncovalent interactions within and
between large molecules, and/or connect the shape and function of the large
molecule to the presence and magnitude of these interactions. (Sec 10.1)
Section 10.1
Intermolecular Forces
AP Learning Objectives, Margin Notes and References

 Learning Objectives
 LO 1.11 The student can analyze data, based on periodicity and the properties of binary compounds, to identify
patterns and generate hypotheses related to the molecular design of compounds for which data are not supplied.
 LO 2.1 Students can predict properties of substances based on their chemical formulas, and provide explanations of
their properties based on particle views.
 LO 2.3 The student is able to use aspects of particular models (i.e. particle spacing, motion, and forces of attraction)
to reason about observed differences between solid and liquid phases and among solid and liquid materials.
 LO 2.11 The student is able to explain the trends in properties and/or predict properties of samples consistently of
particles with no permanent dipole on the basis of London dispersion forces.
 LO 2.13 The student is able to describe the relationships between the structural features of polar molecules and the
forces of attraction between the particles.
 LO 2.16 The student is able to explain the properties (phase, vapor pressure, viscosity, etc.) of small and large
molecular compounds in terms of the strengths and types of intermolecular forces.
 LO 5.9 The student is able to make claims and/or predictions regarding relative magnitudes of the forces acting
within collections of interacting molecules based on the distribution of electrons within the molecules and the type
of intermolecular forces through which the molecules interact.
 LO 5.11 The student is able to identify the noncovalent interactions within and between large molecules, and/or
connect the shape and function of the large molecule to the presence and magnitude of these interactions.
Section 10.1

 AP Margin Notes
 Appendix 7.3 “Intermolecular Forces: The Difference Between Real and Ideal Gases”
 Appendix 7.5 “Intermolecular Forces Between Polar and Nonpolar Molecules”
 The relationship of the physical and chemical processes of a substance to its bonding characteristics is discussed in
Appendix 7.6 “Distinguishing Between Chemical and Physical Changes at the Molecular Level.”
 Additional AP References
 LO 1.11 (see Appendix 7.6 “Distinguishing Between Chemical and Physical Changes at the Molecular Level.”)
 LO 2.11 (see Appendix 7.5 “Intermolecular Forces Between Polar and Nonpolar Molecules”)
 LO 2.13 (see Appendix 7.3 “Intermolecular Forces: The Difference Between Real and Ideal Gases””)
 LO 2.13 (see Appendix 7.5 “Intermolecular Forces Between Polar and Nonpolar Molecules”)
Section 10.1
Intramolecular Bonding
 “Within” the molecule.
 Molecules are formed by sharing electrons between
the atoms.
Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 9

Section 10.1
 Forces that occur between molecules.
 Dipole–dipole forces
 Hydrogen bonding
 London dispersion forces
 Intramolecular bonds are stronger than
intermolecular forces.

Section 10.1
Hydrogen Bonding in Water

 Blue dotted lines are the intermolecular forces between
the water molecules.
Section 10.1
CONCEPT CHECK!
Which are stronger, intramolecular bonds or

intermolecular forces?
How do you know?

Section 10.1
Phase Changes
 When a substance changes from solid to liquid to
gas, the molecules remain intact.
 The changes in state are due to changes in the
forces among molecules rather than in those within
the molecules.

Section 10.1
Schematic Representations of the Three States of Matter

Section 10.1
Phase Changes
 Solid to Liquid
 As energy is added, the motions of the molecules
increase, and they eventually achieve the greater
movement and disorder characteristic of a liquid.
 Liquid to Gas
 As more energy is added, the gaseous state is
eventually reached, with the individual molecules
far apart and interacting relatively little.

Section 10.1
Densities of the Three States of Water

Section 10.1
Dipole-Dipole Forces
 Dipole moment – molecules with polar bonds often
behave in an electric field as if they had a center of
positive charge and a center of negative charge.
 Molecules with dipole moments can attract each
other electrostatically. They line up so that the
positive and negative ends are close to each other.
 Only about 1% as strong as covalent or ionic bonds.

Section 10.1
Dipole-Dipole Forces
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Section 10.1
Hydrogen Bonding

Section 10.1
Hydrogen Bonding
 Strong dipole-dipole forces.
 Hydrogen is bound to a highly electronegative atom
– nitrogen, oxygen, or fluorine.
 That same hydrogen is then electrostatically
attracted to a lone pair on the nitrogen, oxygen or
fluorine on adjacent molecules.

Section 10.1
London Dispersion Forces

Section 10.1
London Dispersion Forces

 Instantaneous dipole that occurs accidentally in a
given atom induces a similar dipole in a neighboring
atom.
 Significant in large atoms/molecules.
 Occurs in all molecules, including nonpolar ones.

Section 10.1
Melting and Boiling Points

 In general, the stronger the intermolecular forces,
the higher the melting and boiling points.

Section 10.1
The Boiling Points of the Covalent Hydrides of the Elements
in Groups 4A, 5A, 6A, and 7A

Section 10.1
CONCEPT CHECK!
Which molecule is capable of forming stronger

intermolecular forces?
N2 H2O
Explain.

Section 10.1
CONCEPT CHECK!
Draw two Lewis structures for the formula C2H6O

and compare the boiling points of the two
molecules.
H H H H
H C C O H H C O C H
H H H H

Section 10.1
CONCEPT CHECK!
Which gas would behave more ideally at the same

conditions of P and T?
CO or N2
Why?

Section 10.2
The Liquid State

Section 10.2
The Liquid State
Liquids
 Low compressibility, lack of rigidity, and high density
compared with gases.
 Surface tension – resistance of a liquid to an increase in
its surface area:
 Liquids with large intermolecular forces tend to have
high surface tensions.

Section 10.2
The Liquid State
Liquids
 Capillary action – spontaneous rising of a liquid in a
narrow tube:
 Cohesive forces – intermolecular forces among the
molecules of the liquid.
 Adhesive forces – forces between the liquid
molecules and their container.

Section 10.2
The Liquid State
Convex Meniscus Formed by Nonpolar Liquid Mercury

 Which force dominates alongside the glass tube –
cohesive or adhesive forces?
cohesive forces
Section 10.2
The Liquid State
Concave Meniscus Formed by Polar Water

 Which force dominates alongside the glass tube –
cohesive or adhesive forces?
adhesive forces
Section 10.2
The Liquid State
Liquids
 Viscosity – measure of a liquid’s resistance to flow:
 Liquids with large intermolecular forces or molecular
complexity tend to be highly viscous.

Section 10.3
An Introduction to Structures and Types of Solids

 LO 2.19 The student can create visual representations of ionic substances that connect the microscopic structure to
macroscopic properties, and/or use representations to connect the microscopic structure to macroscopic
properties (e.g. boiling point, solubility, hardness, brittleness, low volatility, lack of malleability, ductility, or
conductivity).
 LO 2.22 The student is able to design or evaluate a plan to collect and/or interpret data needed to deduce the type
of bonding in a sample of a solid.
 LO 2.31 The student can create a representation of a molecular solid that shows essential characteristics of the
structure and interactions present in the substance.
Section 10.3

 LO 2.22 (see APEC #6: Intermolecular Forces.”)
Section 10.3
Solids
 Amorphous Solids:
 Disorder in the structures
 Glass
 Crystalline Solids:
 Ordered Structures
 Unit Cells

Section 10.3
Three Cubic Unit Cells

and the Corresponding
Lattices

Section 10.3
Bragg Equation
 Used to determine the interatomic spacings.
n = 2d sin 
n = integer
 = wavelength of the X rays
d = distance between the atoms
 = angle of incidence and reflection
Section 10.3
Bragg Equation
n = 2d sin 

Section 10.3
Types of Crystalline Solids

 Ionic Solids – ions at the points of the lattice that
describes the structure of the solid.
 Molecular Solids – discrete covalently bonded molecules
at each of its lattice points.
 Atomic Solids – atoms at the lattice points that describe
the structure of the solid.

Section 10.3
Examples of Three Types of Crystalline Solids

Section 10.3
Classification of Solids

Section 10.4
Structure and Bonding in Metals

conductivity).
 LO 2.20 The student is able to explain how a bonding model involving delocalized electrons is consistent with
macroscopic properties of metal (e.g. conductivity, malleability, ductility, and low volatility) and the shell model of
the atom.
Section 10.4

 LO 2.25 The student is able to compare the properties of metal alloys with their constituent elements to determine
if an alloy has formed, identify the type of alloy formed, and explain the differences in properties using particulate
level reasoning.
 LO 2.26 Students can use the electron sea model of metallic bonding to predict or make claims about the
macroscopic properties of metals or alloys.
 LO 2.27 The student can create a representation of a metallic solid that shows essential characteristics of the
 LO 2.28 The student is able to explain a representation that connects properties of a metallic solid to its structural
attributes and to the interactions present at the atomic level.
Section 10.4
Closest Packing Model

 Closest Packing:
 Assumes that metal atoms are uniform, hard spheres.
 Spheres are packed in layers.

Section 10.4
The Closest Packing Arrangement of Uniform Spheres

 abab packing – the 2nd layer is like the 1st but it is displaced so that
each sphere in the 2nd layer occupies a dimple in the 1st layer.
 The spheres in the 3rd layer occupy dimples in the 2nd layer so that
the spheres in the 3rd layer lie directly over those in the 1st layer.

Section 10.4
The Closest Packing Arrangement of Uniform Spheres

 abca packing – the spheres in the 3rd layer occupy dimples in the
2nd layer so that no spheres in the 3rd layer lie above any in the 1st
layer.
 The 4th layer is like the 1st.

Section 10.4
Hexagonal Closest Packing

Section 10.4
Cubic Closest Packing

Section 10.4
The Indicated Sphere Has 12 Nearest Neighbors

 Each sphere in both ccp
and hcp has 12 equivalent
nearest neighbors.

Section 10.4
The Net Number of Spheres in a Face-Centered Cubic Unit
Cell

Section 10.4
CONCEPT CHECK!
Determine the number of metal atoms in a unit cell if the

packing is:
a) Simple cubic
b) Cubic closest packing
a) 1 metal atom
b) 4 metal atoms

Section 10.4
CONCEPT CHECK!
A metal crystallizes in a face-centered cubic structure.
Determine the relationship between the radius of the

metal atom and the length of an edge of the unit cell.
Length of edge = r  8

Section 10.4
CONCEPT CHECK!
Silver metal crystallizes in a cubic closest packed

structure. The face centered cubic unit cell edge is 409
pm.
Calculate the density of the silver metal.
Density = 10.5 g/cm3

Section 10.4
Bonding Models for Metals

 Electron Sea Model
 Band Model (MO Model)

Section 10.4
The Electron Sea Model

 A regular array of cations in a “sea” of mobile valence
electrons.
Section 10.4
Band or Molecular Orbital (MO) Model
 Electrons are assumed to travel around the metal

crystal in molecular orbitals formed from the
valence atomic orbitals of the metal atoms.

Section 10.4
Molecular Orbital Energy

Levels Produced When
Various Numbers of Atomic
Orbitals Interact

Section 10.4
The Band Model for Magnesium

 Virtual continuum of levels, called bands.

Section 10.4
Metal Alloys
 Substitutional Alloy – some of the host metal atoms are
replaced by other metal atoms of similar size.
 Interstitial Alloy – some of the holes in the closest
packed metal structure are occupied by small atoms.

Section 10.4
Two Types of Alloys

 Brass is a substitutional
alloy.
 Steel is an interstitial
alloy.

Section 10.5
Carbon and Silicon: Network Atomic Solids

 LO 2.29 The student can create a representation of a covalent solid that shows essential characteristics of the
 LO 2.30 The student is able to explain a representation that connects properties of a covalent solid to its structural
Section 10.5

Section 10.5
Network Solids

Section 10.5
The Structures of Diamond and Graphite

Section 10.5
Partial Representation of the Molecular Orbital Energies in
a) Diamond b) a Typical Metal

Section 10.5
The p Orbitals and Pi-system in Graphite

Section 10.5
Ceramics
 Typically made from clays (which contain silicates) and
hardened by firing at high temperatures.
 Nonmetallic materials that are strong, brittle, and
resistant to heat and attack by chemicals.

Section 10.5
Semiconductors
 n-type semiconductor – substance whose conductivity is
increased by doping it with atoms having more valence
electrons than the atoms in the host crystal.
 p-type semiconductor – substance whose conductivity is
increased by doping it with atoms having fewer valence
electrons than the atoms of the host crystal.

Section 10.5
Energy Level Diagrams for
(a) an n-type Semiconductor (b) a p-type Semiconductor

Section 10.5
Silicon Crystal Doped with

(a) Arsenic and
(b) Boron
Section 10.6
Molecular Solids

 LO 2.31 The student can create a representation of a molecular solid that shows essential characteristics of the
 LO 2.32 The student is able to explain a representation that connects properties of a molecular solid to its structure
Section 10.6
Molecular Solids

Section 10.6
Molecular Solids

Section 10.7
Ionic Solids

 LO 2.23 The student can create a representation of an ionic solid that shows essential characteristics of the
 LO 2.24 The student is able to explain a representation that connects properties of an ionic solid to its structural
Section 10.7
Ionic Solids

Section 10.7
Ionic Solids

Section 10.7
Ionic Solids
Ionic Solids
 Ionic solids are stable, high melting substances

held together by the strong electrostatic forces
that exist between oppositely charged ions.

Section 10.7
Ionic Solids
Three Types of Holes in Closest Packed Structures

1) Trigonal holes are formed by three spheres in the same
layer.

Section 10.7
Ionic Solids

2) Tetrahedral holes are formed when a sphere sits in the
dimple of three spheres in an adjacent layer.

Section 10.7
Ionic Solids

3) Octahedral holes are formed between two sets of three
spheres in adjoining layers of the closest packed
structures.

Section 10.7
Ionic Solids
 For spheres of a given diameter, the holes increase in

size in the order:
trigonal < tetrahedral < octahedral

Section 10.7
Ionic Solids
Types and Properties of Solids

Section 10.8
Vapor Pressure and Changes of State

conductivity).
 LO 5.6 The student is able to use calculations or estimations to relate energy changes associated with
heating/cooling a substance to the heat capacity, relate energy changes associated with a phase transition to the
enthalpy of fusion/vaporization, relate energy changes associated with chemical reaction to the enthalpy of the
reaction, and relate energy changes to PΔV work. LO 5.10 The student can support the claim about whether a
process is a chemical or physical change (or may be classified as both) based on whether the process involves
changes in intramolecular versus intermolecular interactions.
Section 10.8
Behavior of a Liquid in a Closed Container
a) Initially b) at Equilibrium

Section 10.8
The Rates of Condensation and Evaporation

Section 10.8
Vapor Pressure
 Pressure of the vapor present at equilibrium.
 The system is at equilibrium when no net change occurs
in the amount of liquid or vapor because the two
opposite processes exactly balance each other.

Section 10.8
What is the vapor pressure of water at 100°C?

How do you know?
1 atm

Section 10.8
Vapor Pressure

Section 10.8
Vapor Pressure
 Liquids in which the intermolecular forces are large have
relatively low vapor pressures.
 Vapor pressure increases significantly with temperature.

Section 10.8
Vapor Pressure vs. Temperature

Section 10.8
Clausius–Clapeyron Equation
 Pvap,T  H vap  1 1
ln  1
 =   
 Pvap,T  R T
 2 T1
 2 
Pvap = vapor pressure

ΔHvap = enthalpy of vaporization
R = 8.3145 J/K·mol
T = temperature (in kelvin)
Section 10.8
The vapor pressure of water at 25°C is 23.8 torr, and

the heat of vaporization of water at 25°C is 43.9 kJ/mol.
Calculate the vapor pressure of water at 65°C.
194 torr

Section 10.8
Changes of State

Section 10.8
Heating Curve for Water

Section 10.8
CONCEPT CHECK!
Which would you predict should be larger for a given

substance: ΔHvap or ΔHfus?
Explain why.

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AP*

Liquids and Solids

 LO 2.28 The student is able to explain a representation that connects properties

 LO 5.6 The student is able to use calculations or estimations to relate energy

AP Learning Objectives, Margin Notes and References

AP Learning Objectives, Margin Notes and References

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 9

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 10

Hydrogen Bonding in Water

Which are stronger, intramolecular bonds or

How do you know?

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 12

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 13

Schematic Representations of the Three States of Matter

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Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 15

Densities of the Three States of Water

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London Dispersion Forces

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London Dispersion Forces

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Melting and Boiling Points

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Which molecule is capable of forming stronger

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 25

Draw two Lewis structures for the formula C2H6O

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 26

Which gas would behave more ideally at the same

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 27

AP Learning Objectives, Margin Notes and References

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 29

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 30

Convex Meniscus Formed by Nonpolar Liquid Mercury

Concave Meniscus Formed by Polar Water

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AP Learning Objectives, Margin Notes and References

AP Learning Objectives, Margin Notes and References

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 36

Three Cubic Unit Cells

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Types of Crystalline Solids

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Examples of Three Types of Crystalline Solids

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AP Learning Objectives, Margin Notes and References

AP Learning Objectives, Margin Notes and References

Closest Packing Model

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The Closest Packing Arrangement of Uniform Spheres

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The Closest Packing Arrangement of Uniform Spheres

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Hexagonal Closest Packing

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Cubic Closest Packing

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