All Plants Alternate Between Two Phases in Their Life Cycles

22.
1 Plant Life Cycles

KEY CONCEPT
All plants alternate between two phases in their life
cycles.
22.1 Plant Life Cycles
Plant life cycles alternate between producing spores and
gametes.
• A two-phase life cycle is called alternation of generations.
– haploid phase
– diploid phase
– alternates between
the two
SPOROPHYTE
PHASE
fertilization
fertilization
meiosis
meiosis
GAMETOPHYTE
PHASE
• The spore-producing plant is the mature sporophyte.

– sporophyte phase is diploid
– begins with fertilized egg
– spores produced through
meiosis
• The gamete-producing plant is the
mature gametophyte.
– gametophyte
phase is haploid
– begins with spore
– gametes
produced through
mitosis
Life cycle phases look different among various plant
groups.
• Nonvascular plants have a dominant gametophyte phase.
– moss gametophytes look like green carpet
– moss sporophytes shoot up as stalklike structures
sporophyte
sporophyte(2n)
(2n)
capsule
spores (1n)
gametophyte
gametophyte(1n)
(1n)
• The sporophyte is the dominant phase for seedless

vascular plants.
– Fern spores form in sacs, sori, on underside of mature
sporophytes (fronds).
sporophyte
sporophyte(2n)
(2n)
sori
– A fern gametophyte, or prothallus, produces sperm and

eggs.
gametophyte
gametophyte(1n))
(1n))
rhizoid
– A zygote forms on the prothallus, growing into the

sporophyte.
• The sporophyte is the dominant phase for seed plants.

– pine trees are typical seed plant sporophytes
– female spores produced in female cones
– male spores produced in male cones
– male spores develop into pollen grains, the male
gametophytes
– female spores develop into female gametophytes that
produce eggs
– sperm from pollen travel down pollen tube toward egg
– fertilized egg develops into embryo
– ovule develops into protective pine seed
• The sporophyte is the dominant phase for seed plants.

Moss life cycle

Fern Life Cycle

Conifer Life Cycle

Flowering Plant Life Cycle
•22.2 Reproduction in Flowering Plants
KEY CONCEPT
Reproduction of flowering plants takes place within
flowers.
Flowers contain reproductive organs protected by
specialized leaves.
• Sepals and petals are modified leaves.
– Sepals are outermost
layer that protects
developing flower
sepal
– Petals can help to attract animal pollinators
petal
• A stamen is the male structure of the flower.

stamen
filament anther
– anther produces pollen grains

– filament supports the anther
• The innermost layer of a flower is the female carpel.
stigma
carpel style
ovary
– stigma is sticky tip

– style is tube leading from stigma to ovary
– ovary produces female gametophyte
Flower Parts
Complete and Perfect Flower
Monocot Flower
Incomplete and Imperfect Flower
Dicot Flower
Incomplete and Imperfect Flower
Dicot Flower
Complete and Perfect Flower
Monocot Flower
Simple fruit
Aggregate fruit
Multiple fruit
Flowering plants can be pollinated by wind or animals.

• Flowering plants pollinated when pollen grains land on
stigma.
• Wind pollinated flowers have small flowers and large
amounts of pollen.
• Animal pollinated flowers have larger flowers and less

pollen.
– many flowering plants pollinated by animal pollinators
pollen grains
– pollination occurs as animal feeds from flower to flower

– animal pollination more efficient than wind pollination
Fertilization takes place within the flower.

• Male gametophytes, or pollen grains, are produced in the
anthers.
– male spores produced in
anthers by meiosis
– each spore divides by
mitosis to form two
haploid cells
– two cells form a
single pollen grain pollen grain
• One female gametophyte can form in each ovule of a

flower’s ovary.
– four female spores produced in ovule by meiosis
– one spore develops into female gametophyte
– female gametophyte contains seven cells
– one cell has two nuclei, or polar nuclei
– one cell will develop into an egg
• Pollination occurs when a pollen grain lands on a stigma.
pollen
pollentube
tube
sperm
sperm
stigma
stigma
– one cell from pollen grain forms pollen tube

– other cell forms two sperm that travel down tube
• Flowering plants go through the process of double

fertilization.
female
gametophyte
egg
sperm
polar nuclei
ovule
• Flowering plants go through the process of double

fertilization. endosperm
– one sperm fertilizes

the egg seed coat
– other sperm unites

with polar nuclei,
forming endosperm
– endosperm provides
food supply for
embryo
embryo
• Each ovule becomes a seed.

• The surrounding ovary grows into a fruit.
•22.3 Seed Dispersal and Germination
KEY CONCEPT
Seeds disperse and begin to grow when conditions
are favorable.
Animals, wind, and water can spread seeds.
• Seeds dispersed by animals can have nutritious fruits or
fruits that cling.
• Seeds dispersed by wind can have wing- or parachute-

like fruits.
Cypselae
Double samaras
• Seeds dispersed by water can have fruits that float.

Seeds begin to grow when environmental conditions are

favorable.
• Seed dormancy is a state in which the embryo has stopped
growing.
– Dormancy may end
when conditions are
favorable.
– While dormant,
embryo can withstand
extreme conditions.
• Germination begins the growth of an embryo into a seedling.
– water causes seed to swell and crack coat

– embryonic root, radicle, is first to emerge
– water activates enzymes that help send sugars to
embryo
• Germination begins the growth of an embryo into a seedling.

– water activates enzymes that help send sugars to embryo
– embryonic shoot, plumule, emerges next

• Germination begins the growth of an embryo into a

seedling.
– water activates enzymes that help send sugars to
embryo
– embryonic shoot, plumule, emerges next
– leaves emerge last
• Once photosynthesis begins, the plant is called a seedling.

•22.4 Asexual Reproduction
KEY CONCEPT
Plants can produce genetic clones of themselves
through asexual reproduction.
Plants can reproduce asexually with stems, leaves, or
roots.
• Asexual reproduction allows a plant to make copies of itself.
• Regeneration is one type of asexual reproduction.
– plants grow a new individual from fragment of parent
– occurs when piece of a stem, leaf, or root falls off parent
plant
• Vegetative reproduction is another type of asexual

reproduction.
– stems, leaves, or roots
attached to parent plant
produce new individuals
– specific adaptations
include stolons, rhizomes,
and tubers
Humans can produce plants with desirable traits using
vegetative structures.
• Vegetative propagation takes advantage of plants’ ability to
reproduce asexually.
• Humans use one plant with desirable traits to produce
many individuals.
– cutting of leaves or stems may grow new roots
– grafting joins the parts of
two plants together to form
a hybrid plant
•22.5 Plant Hormones and Responses
KEY CONCEPT
Plant hormones guide plant growth and development.
Plant hormones regulate plant functions.

• Hormones are chemical messengers.
– produced in one part of an organism
– stimulates or suppresses activity in another part
• Gibberellins are plant hormones that produce dramatic

increases in size.
– ending seed dormancy
– rapid growth of young
seedlings
– rapid growth of some
flower stalks
• Ethylene causes the ripening of fruits.

– some fruits picked before
they are ripe
– sprayed with ethylene to
ripen when reach
destination
• Cytokinins stimulate cytokinesis.

– final stage in cell division
– produced in growing roots, seeds, and fruits
– involved in growth of side branches
• Auxins lengthen plant cells in the growing tip.

– stimulates growth of
primary stem
– controls some forms of
tropism
• A tropism is the movement
of plant in response to an
environmental stimulus.
Plants can respond to light, touch, gravity, and seasonal

changes.
• Phototropism is the
tendency of a plant to
grow toward light.
– auxins build up on
shaded side of stem
– cells on shaded
side lengthen
– causes stem to
bend toward light
• Thigmotropism is a plant’s response to touchlike stimuli.

– climbing plants and vines
– plants that grow in direction of constant wind
• Gravitropism is a plant’s response to Earth’s gravitational

pull.
– positive gravitropism is downward growth (roots)
– negative gravitropism is upward growth (shoots)
• Some plants have rapid responses not involving growth.

– Some responses protect
plants from predators.
– Some responses allow
plants to capture food.
• Photoperiodism is a response to the changing lengths of

day and night.
– triggers some plants to flower
– triggers fall colors/winter dormancy of deciduous trees

All Plants Alternate Between Two Phases in Their Life Cycles

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22.

1 Plant Life Cycles

• The spore-producing plant is the mature sporophyte.

• The sporophyte is the dominant phase for seedless

– A fern gametophyte, or prothallus, produces sperm and

– A zygote forms on the prothallus, growing into the

• The sporophyte is the dominant phase for seed plants.

• The sporophyte is the dominant phase for seed plants.

Moss life cycle

Fern Life Cycle

Conifer Life Cycle

– Petals can help to attract animal pollinators

• A stamen is the male structure of the flower.

– anther produces pollen grains

• The innermost layer of a flower is the female carpel.

– stigma is sticky tip

Flowering plants can be pollinated by wind or animals.

• Animal pollinated flowers have larger flowers and less

– pollination occurs as animal feeds from flower to flower

Fertilization takes place within the flower.

• One female gametophyte can form in each ovule of a

• Pollination occurs when a pollen grain lands on a stigma.

– one cell from pollen grain forms pollen tube

• Flowering plants go through the process of double

• Flowering plants go through the process of double

– one sperm fertilizes

– other sperm unites

• Each ovule becomes a seed.

• Seeds dispersed by wind can have wing- or parachute-

• Seeds dispersed by water can have fruits that float.

Seeds begin to grow when environmental conditions are

• Germination begins the growth of an embryo into a seedling.

– water causes seed to swell and crack coat

• Germination begins the growth of an embryo into a seedling.

– embryonic shoot, plumule, emerges next

• Germination begins the growth of an embryo into a

• Once photosynthesis begins, the plant is called a seedling.

• Vegetative reproduction is another type of asexual

Plant hormones regulate plant functions.

• Gibberellins are plant hormones that produce dramatic

• Ethylene causes the ripening of fruits.

• Cytokinins stimulate cytokinesis.

• Auxins lengthen plant cells in the growing tip.

Plants can respond to light, touch, gravity, and seasonal

• Thigmotropism is a plant’s response to touchlike stimuli.

• Gravitropism is a plant’s response to Earth’s gravitational

• Some plants have rapid responses not involving growth.

• Photoperiodism is a response to the changing lengths of

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