Distributed

Generation
Overview 2

 Distributed Generation
• What is Distributed Generation (DG)?
• Types and Operating Characteristics of DG

 DG Impacts
• Islanding
• Power Quality
• Fault Current
• Peak Load Shaving
• Subtransmission

 Mitigation Methods

 Future of Distribution Systems

Di s t r i b u t e d Ge n e r a t i o n 4

 What is Distributed Generation?

• Distributed Generation - the production of

electrical energy at, or close to, the location where
it is to be used.1
Typically produces power in the form of AC.
Nominal frequency dictated by residing country
(60 Hz in US).
Customer-owned and maintained facilities.
Distributed Generation, or DG, systems
classified by type of utility interface.
T y p e s o f Di s t r i b u t e d Ge n e r a t i o n 5

 Static or Solid-State Inverter

• Power electronic device that converts DC power from the
primary energy source to AC power suited to the grid.2
• Typically powered by photovoltaic (PV) generation, micro
turbines, wind turbines, etc.
 Output current is limited or controlled real-time
 Output voltage is regulated by utility (voltage following)
• Power factor is generally fixed near unity
• Available as utility-interactive or stand alone
• Like models capable of multi-inverter, parallel operation
• Single, large units or micro-inverter units available
T y p e s o f Di s t r i b u t e d Ge n e r a t i o n 6

 Inductive Generation
• Identical design to the AC induction motor
• Multi-phase armature windings within solid core stator
• Electromagnetically driven squirrel-cage rotor
• Reactive power is consumed during motor mode operation
• Active power is produced during generator mode operation
• Operates at rotor rotational speeds greater than synchronous
speed (rpm)
• Generally found in variable-speed applications
 T y p e s o f Di s t r i b u t e d Ge n e r a t i o n 7

 Synchronous Generation
• Similar in design to inductive generator
• Solid core stator designed with armature windings within laminated
slots
• Rotor creates rotating magnetic flux via three methods
 Permanent Magnets
 DC-powered electromagnets via slip rings/commutator system
 Brushless exciter alternator
• Induced current imposed upon armature windings
• More costly than inductive generators due to:
 Increased cost of permanent magnets
 Higher complexity in comparison to inductive motors
 Maintenance required for commutator and slip ring adjustments,
replacements, etc.
Op e r a t i n g Ch a r a c t e r i s t i c s 8

 Static or Solid State Inverter

• Typical DC source to inverter-based systems are photovoltaic (PV)
panels
• Performance has direct correlation to dynamic solar irradiation
• Momentary cloud cover causes erratic output
• “Rule of Thumb” fault current = 2 x normal rated current3
Op e r a t i n g Ch a r a c t e r i s t i c s 9

 Inductive Generation
• Field excitation requires leading VARS supplied by capacitors
• Difference between actual rotor driving speed and utility-dictated
synchronous speed is known as slip
• Generator rotational speeds above synchronous speed, or
negative slip, achieves power production
• Prime mover required to achieve negative slip
• Voltage and frequency regulated by utility
• Generation decays to zero steady-state post fault isolation
Op e r a t i n g Ch a r a c t e r i s t i c s 10

 Synchronous Generation
• Driving speed (rpm) determined by number of poles and desired
frequency
• Variable rotor torque dictates real power generation
• Variable excitation level dictates reactive power generation
• Power factor can be controlled via torque and excitation level
• Generation generally persists longer than induction generation due to
rotor inertia and residual magnetic field
B e n e f i t s o f Di s t r i b u t e d Ge n e r a t i o n 11

 Customer Benefits
• Reduced apparent power consumption visible to utility, resulting in
reduced electric bill
• If net metering is employed, excess energy may be exported back to
utility in exchange for billing credits
 Utility Benefits
• Reduced apparent power consumption may reduce overall losses
• Depending upon characteristics of DG and high voltage feeder,
service transformer, and DG system, voltage support possible in some
cases
• Dispatchable DG provides alternate sources of power generation to
provide system redundancy and hardening
 Increased renewable energy DG systems (PV, Wind, Geothermal, etc.)
supports AEPS Act 213 initiatives
I m p a c t s o f Di s t r i b u t e d Ge n e r a t i o n 12

 Secondary Overvoltage
• Voltage rise on secondary service cables
 ANSI Service Voltage Range A, or ANSI Range A, dictates service voltage to remain
within +/- 5% of nominal4
 Most inverter-connected systems operate in voltage-following mode
 Injected power causes voltage rise in correlation to impedance of conductor
between inverter and point of common coupling (PCC)
I m p a c t s o f Di s t r i b u t e d Ge n e r a t i o n 13

 Voltage Fluctuation
• Voltage may become highly variable within short periods of time
 Voltage “rise” induced by inverter-based DG varies with variable DC input (i.e. PV,
Wind)
 Voltage swing between DG inverter “maximum output” and “minimum output”
induced voltages measured at customer can produce significant voltage dips
 Resultant voltage dips, or “flicker”, must be evaluated against IEEE 519-1992
flicker curve
 Large voltage swings may also cause sporadic capacitor bank switching and/or
regulator voltage “hunting”
 Generally severity increases with DG penetration and/or concentration level, as well as
system strength
I m p a c t s o f Di s t r i b u t e d Ge n e r a t i o n 14

 Primary Overvoltage
• DG service transformer is delta primary, grounded-wye secondary
• Occurs when substation breaker isolates multi-grounded-wye
source from faulted facilities and DG continues to operate
• During line-to-ground faults, “neutral shifting” occurs affecting
single-phase loads on non-faulted phases
I m p a c t s o f Di s t r i b u t e d Ge n e r a t i o n 16

 Unintentional Islanding
• Condition established when a section of the grid is isolated from the
substation supply while the load continues to be maintained by DG
within the isolated section that continues to provide power.6
• Results in potentially non-phasing automatic reclosing between
utility and island
I m p a c t s o f Di s t r i b u t e d Ge n e r a t i o n 17

 Unintentional Islanding
• Island remains energized at a different frequency, voltage, and/or
power factor
• DG generally has insufficient regulatory controls to maintain
frequency and voltage within ANSI Range A limits
• Possible damaged conductors contacting ground could remain
energized
 Poses risk to public of additional source of electrical injury
 Poses additional risk to line crews performing restorative work
I m p a c t s o f Di s t r i b u t e d Ge n e r a t i o n 20

 Fault Current Contribution

• Excessive fault current
• Coordination issues due to sympathetic tripping
 Unnecessary tripping of additional protective devices on unrelated feeder(s) due to
a fault on an adjacent feeder
 High penetration levels required for sufficient fault current for multi-feeder
scenario
 Similar condition exists for lower penetrations on a single feeder
 Protective devices may operate out of intended coordination scheme

F1

F3 F2
Fu t u r e Di s t r i b u t i o n Sy s t e m De s i g n 27

 Interactive volt/var regulation

 Adaptive protective relaying schemes
 Advanced islanding control
 Improved grounding compatibility
 Energy storage
Su m m a r y 28

 Distribution system is not designed to accommodate

multiple sources other than the substation
 Future adaptations to the standard distribution system design
must be considered for proper integration with high DG
penetration such as:
• Interactive volt/var regulation
• Transfer/trip communication
• Communication amongst LTCs, regulators, inverter-based
systems, etc.
 Effects upon local utility system varies upon characteristics of
the system, proposed DG, and its interconnection site
 Severity of impacts are generally proportional to
penetration level