GM-221: Introduction to Engineering

Surveying

YEAR SEMESTER I (2017/2018)

PART ONE: Route and Site Surveys:

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 Introduction
pre-requsite :

Basic concepts of surveying`Q

-Definition
-Units of measurements
-Principles
-Methods of surveying
-Coordinate systems
Basic concepts of surveying measurements
-Linear measurements (distance measurements)
-Angle measurements
Leveling
-Spirit leveling
-Trigonometrical leveling etc
Elementary Methods of point fixation
-Bearing and distance fixation
-Online fixation
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 Introduction
This part will cover the following:
-Control surveys for routes and construction sites profiling.
Definitions
Surveying is defined as the science of determining the position,
in three dimensions, of natural and man-made features on or
beneath the surface of the Earth.
-End product of surveying is generation of analogue and
digital contoured maps, plans or charts, or digital ground
models (DGM).
The use of plans, maps etc.
-Planning, designing and production of site layouts for construction
purposes, both on the surface and underground.
-These layouts later are used for dimension control or setting
out of construction elements and for monitoring deformation
movements.
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 Introduction
Definitions
 A route is a course or a way used for travel from one place
to another. Example, a route for water is a passage through
which water pass through etc.
 A construction site is a place where the construction is
taking place. Example a site where a school is being built.
 Control networks comprise a series of points or positions
which are spatially located for the purpose of topographic
surveying, for the control of supplementary points, or
dimensional control on site.
 Control surveys are the surveys done to form the basic
framework of control points or network around the area of
interest.

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 Introduction
A Control network is the framework of survey stations whose
relative positions in two or three dimensions, have been
precisely determined to specified degrees of accuracy and
are often considered definitive (perfect).
Every survey should pass through but not limited to the
following stages:
 Pre- analysis of the work
 Reconnaissance
 Field work which involves;
-Control points establishment (Major and minor)
-Field Data capture and storage
 Office work which involves
-Data downloading
-Data reduction and corrections if necessary
-Data processing or data computation
 Generation of maps or plans (In analogue or digital forms)
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 Introduction
A note to Engineers:
 Surveying is indispensable (essential) to the engineer when
planning, designing and constructing a project;
 So all engineers should have a thorough understanding of the
limits of accuracy possible in the construction and
manufacturing processes.
 This knowledge, combined with an equal understanding of
the limits and capabilities of surveying instrumentation and
techniques, will enable the engineer to complete the project
successfully in the most economical manner and in the
shortest possible time.

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Principles of surveying
1. Control surveys
2. Economy of accuracy
3. Consistency
4. The independent check
5. Safeguarding
6. Revision

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 Control surveys
This is the first principle of any survey.
Basically it will explain on the controls for route and site
surveys.
The control survey stations are the reference monuments, to
which other survey work of a lesser quality is related
depending on purpose of survey.
This is done by using equipment of proven precision, with
methods that satisfy the principles and data processing that
not only computes the correct values but gives numerical
measures of their precision and reliability.

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 Control surveys
Control networks comprise a series of points or positions
which are spatially located for the purpose of:
 Topographic mapping and large-scale plan production.
 Dimensional control of construction work.
 Deformation surveys for all manner of structures, both new
and old.
 The extension and densification of existing control
networks.

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 Control surveys
The established controls must be:
 Planned to ensure that it achieves the numerically stated
objectives of precision and reliability.
 Complete as they are needed for all related and dependent
survey works which are usually less precise but of greater
quantity.
 Fully computed before any other work is made to depend
upon it.
Examples of less precise works include setting out for
earthworks on a construction site, detail surveys of a
Greenfield site or of an as-built development and
monitoring many points on a structure suspected of
undergoing deformation.
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 Control surveys
The practice of using a control framework as a basis for
further survey operations is often called ‘working from the
whole to the part’.
If it becomes necessary to work outside the control
framework then it must be extended to cover the increased
area of operations.
Failure to do so will degrade the accuracy of later survey work
even if the quality of survey observations is maintained.

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 Control surveys
Usually the route and construction sites are relatively small, for which
large-scale plans are required.
It is of prime importance that the establishment and referencing of survey
control stations to these sites should be carried out at such places and in
such a manner that they will survive throughout the construction
processes.
The stations required for the total duration of the project may be
established in concrete or masonry pillars with metal plates or bolts
set in and which is punched on the station position.
Less durable are stout wooden pegs set in concrete or driven directly into
the ground.
A system of numbering the stations is essential, and frequently pegs are
painted different colors to denote the particular functions for which they
are to be used.

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 Control surveys
These final positions should be chosen to ensure that they are:
(i) Clear,
(ii) Uninterrupted lines of sight (visible).
(iii) Stable
(iv) In the best observing positions.
(v) Safe from destruction.
The location of these points, and the type of terrain involved, would then
influence the method of survey to be used to locate their spatial
position.
 Figures below indicates control points A, B, … , F, in the area to be
surveyed. It is required to obtain the coordinate positions of each point.

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 Control surveys

Existing and new designed A network of control points

control points on a layout
map (site map).
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 Types of control networks
There are two types of control networks
1. Horizontal controls
2. Vertical controls (already discussed).

Horizontal controls deal with horizontal positions (2-D).

They are used to define location of points on or beneath the
earth’s surface with reference to defined horizontal
datum. Some times in 3D.
Vertical controls deal with vertical positions (1-D).
They are used to define the vertical position of points
(benchmarks) with respect to a defined vertical datum
(e.g. mean sea level).

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Methods used for horizontal and vertical control surveys
 Traversing (most favored simple method of locating the
relative coordinate positions of control points in engineering
and construction).
 Triangulation ( which require all angles to be measured with
required accuracy and at least one baseline)
 Trilateration ( which requires lengths of all the sides to be
measured in the same triangular configuration without the
angles).
 Intersection and resection.
 Whilst the methods illustrated above would largely supply a
two-dimensional coordinate position, GPS satellites could be
used to provide a three-dimensional position.

Vertical controls are established by

 Precise leveling, Trigonometrical leveling,

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 Proposed Accuracy requirements
For a primary system of control points has been established as stage
one of the surveying and setting out process, its acceptability (or
otherwise) is based on the difference between the measured distance
and its equivalent, computed from the adjusted coordinates, that is the
residual.
 This difference should not exceed ±0.75(L)1/2 mm, with a minimum of
4 mm, where L is the distance in metres.
 For angles it is ±0.045(L)−1/2 degrees.

For a secondary system of control points the acceptance criteria is: For
distance, ±1.5(L)1/2 mm, with a minimum of 8 mm.
 For angles, ±0.09(L)−1/2 degrees. No minimum value is stated.
However, if the line length is 1000 m then the tolerance is 10” which
would be hard to achieve with a 10” theodolite, therefore this criteria
should only be applied to shorter lines.
 For levelling between benchmarks the general acceptance criterion is
±5 mm, with slight variations for different situations.

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Methods used for horizontal and vertical control surveys

Control
extension
using GPS
technique
(Static
method)

 Major traverse network A to

F and a minor link traverse
A to B Control points' monuments
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 Methods used for horizontal and vertical control surveys

A benchmark
 A survey station
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 Protecting and referencing

Control point reference pegs

Control point protection

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The next section is on Setting and
staking out of routes

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