UNIT I: COMMUNICATION PROCESSES,

PRINCIPLES, AND ETHICS

PREPARED BY:
MS. AGA EMM D. MAHINAY,MAEd
FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT: RECITATION

✔ What is
communication?
✔ Why do we
communicate?
✔ How do we
communicate?
 1.1 Definition of Communication

⮚It comes from a Latin word commūnicāre which

means “to share” or “to divide.”

⮚It also comes from a Latin word communis which

roughly means “working together”.
1.1 Definition of Communication

the act or process of using words, sounds, signs, or

behaviors to express or exchange information or to
express your ideas, thoughts, feelings, etc., to
someone else
(http://www.merriam-webster.com)
Communication

the exchange of information and the expression of

feeling that can result in understanding
(http://dictionary.cambridge.org)
1.2 MODES OF COMMUNICATION
Modes of Communication

1. Verbal Communication
oral
written

2. Non-verbal Communication
body language
sign language
1.2 Speech Context
Speech context refers to the situation or environment and the
circumstances in which communication occurs. 

Characteristics of Speech Contexts

1. Number of participants
2. Physical proximity of the participants in relation to one another
3. The channel used for the communication
4. The immediacy of the exchange
Speech Context

There are three main types of speech context:

1. Intrapersonal speech context
2. Interpersonal speech context
3. Public communication
Intrapersonal Communication

Intrapersonal communication simply means communicating with oneself. The

individual involved in the process of communication is both the sender and the
receiver.

Examples:
• daydreaming
• reflecting
• analyzing
• evaluating
• mumbling
Example of Intrapersonal Communication

Dear Diary,

The past few days have been tough for me. Since my parents’ separation, I’ve had
to live with just my mom. I’ve also had to transfer to a new school. The people
there are nice, and I have a new group of friends. But I’m having trouble keeping
up with the lessons, and I do miss my friends at my old school. When my mom asks
how I am, I always say I’m okay just because I don’t want her to worry about me.
But sometimes I wish Dad was still around. Oh well. I’ll just have to keep on being
strong and doing my best, I guess.
1. Direct - face-to-face encounter

2. Indirect - virtual, with the use of technology

talking to someone over the telephone or internet, communicating
by email, teleconferencing in distance-learning class
Interpersonal Communication

Interpersonal communication is a transmission or

exchange of a message, feelings, or a meaning
through verbal or nonverbal cues, necessitates an
interdependent relationship between or among the
participants and may be direct or indirect.
Example of Interpersonal Communication

Tess: Hey, Julia. How have you been? I haven’t seen you in so long!
Julia: Hi, Tess! I’m doing well. I haven’t been back since we moved, and
we’ve been busy with all sorts of things. How about you? Are you still
working at Carter Inc.?
Tess: Yes, I’m still there, and I just recently got promoted.
Julia: Wow, that’s great! You really deserve it. You’re so hardworking.
Tess: Thank you. So are you.
Kinds of Interpersonal Communication

1. Dyad
• composed of two participants taking turns as speaker and listener in the
communication process
• also known as one-to-one communication
• may be formal or informal
e.g., conversing with a friend, speaking with a teacher, telling stories about
your day to your mother
2. Small Group
• composed of three or more participants who engage in discussion to achieve a
common goal like problem solving, performing a task or deciding on something

Examples:
roundtable discussions
panel discussions
group brainstorming sessions
study groups
Public Communication

• single speaker
• sizeable audience
• message: general interest to the audience
• needs planning and preparation
• limited or no opportunities for feedback except for nonverbal
messages
• has a definite time limit
Examples:

• a professor giving a lecture at a conference

• a president delivering an inaugural address
• a candidate delivering a campaign speech
• a student delivering a valedictory speech
Example of Public Communication
Books and Burglars
Mark Twain

Suppose this library had been in operation a few weeks ago, and the burglars who happened along and broke into my house—taking a lot
of things they didn’t need, and for that matter which I didn’t need—had first made entry into this institution.

Picture them seated here on the floor, poring by the light of their dark-lanterns over some of the books they found, and thus absorbing
moral truths and getting a moral uplift. The whole course of their lives would have been changed. As it was, they kept straight on in
their immoral way and were sent to jail.
For all we know, they may next be sent to Congress.

And, speaking of burglars, let us not speak of them too harshly. Now, I have known so many burglars—not exactly known, but so many
of them have come near me in my various dwelling-places, that I am disposed to allow them credit for whatever good qualities they
possess.

Chief among these, and, indeed, the only one I just now think of, is their great care while doing business to avoid disturbing people’s
sleep.
Noiseless as they may be while at work, however, the effect of their visitation is to murder sleep later on.

Now we are prepared for these visitors. All sorts of alarm devices have been put in the house, and the ground for half a mile around it
has been electrified. The burglar who steps within this danger zone will set loose a bedlam of sounds, and spring into readiness for
action our elaborate system of defenses. As for the fate of the trespasser, do not seek to know that. He will never be heard of more.
1.2 PURPOSE OF COMMUNICATION
Purpose of Communication

1. To inform - professionals, such as doctors and teachers, deliver

speeches during conferences and seminars

2. To persuade - convincing others to buy products, to support a

cause or advocacy, or to vote for a particular candidate

3. To entertain - delivering toasts during a special occasion,

comedy speeches, messages during school/company
programs/parties
1.2 Speech Styles
What Are Speech Styles?

Speech style - a particular style of speaking when a person interacts with

others.
Speech style also indicates the level of formality with which a person speaks.

Dutch linguist Martin Joos (The Five Clocks) identified five types of speech style:
• Intimate
• Casual
• Consultative
• Formal
• Frozen
These speech styles are also called language registers.
Intimate Speech Styles

• Characterized by a complete absence of social inhibitions

• Used by participants who share a very close relationship
• Participants share a completely private vocabulary

a. Conversations are usually done in private.

b. Participants usually use short, incomplete utterances.
c. Grammar and proper word choice are not given importance.
d. Nonverbal cues are often used to convey messages.
e. Participants share inside jokes.
f. Words that signal intimacy are used.
EXAMPLE

Wife: Sweetheart, our tenth anniversary is coming up! Do you

have any ideas on how we should celebrate?
Husband: Well, dear, I was thinking we could get my parents
to look after the kids for a week and go on a second
honeymoon. What do you think?
Wife: Oh, that would be lovely!
Husband: I’m glad you think so! Let’s take a look at some
possible destinations then, shall we?
Casual Speech Style

● a relaxed or informal dialogue between friends, peers, colleagues, or

family
● Participants may use group language so only members of the group can
understand it.
a. The tone is conversational. Slang, colloquial words, elliptical
sentences, and informal contractions are used.
b. General words rather than technical ones are used.
c. Interruptions are common.
d. Nicknames are used in addressing one another.
You may also use this when you would like to make someone feel at
EXAMPLE

Friend 1: Hey, Nicky. Wanna watch a movie this

weekend? That new superhero flick is premiering
tomorrow. We could catch the first weekend show.
Friend 2: Well, I’m still not done with the paper due
Monday. Lemme see if I can get it done by Friday.
Friend 1: Alrighty! Just lemme know soon as you can.
Consultative Speech Style

• The most operational style among the other styles

• Used in semiformal situations in which a speaker needs to provide background
information because the listener (or addressee) may not be able to understand
without it.
• Used in ordinary or routine transactions that lead to an outcome or result
• Used in business or in other professional situations
• Interruptions are allowed.
• Titles are likely to be used when using this speech style.
• Speaker chooses words with some care, but the flow of conversation is
still instantaneous.
 EXAMPLE

Situation: A woman is consulting with a banking representative.

Banking Rep.: It’s very nice to meet you, Mrs. Cruz. My name is
Jerome de Leon. How may I help you today?
Woman: I would like to apply for a credit card, but I don’t know
where to start.
Banking Rep.: I see. I can certainly help! We offer many different
kinds of credit cards to suit our clients’ needs.
Woman: Oh, really? What kinds of credit cards do you have?
Banking Rep.: Here is a brochure with the types of credit cards we offer.
When choosing a credit card, it’s helpful to take into consideration your
income, what you’ll be using it for, and your payment plan.
Woman: Hmm . . . looking at this list, I think I would like to apply for your
platinum credit card.
Banking Rep.: Excellent. Please fill out this form. Afterward, we just need
photocopies of two valid government IDs, a certificate of employment, and
a photocopy of your latest income tax return. Thank you for trusting us with
your banking needs, Mrs. Cruz.
Formal Speech Style

• Lack of listener participation

• Often used in formal situations wherein there is only one-
way communication
• The speaker needs to plan ahead his or her utterances, or
what he or she is going to say.
• Also used in sermons, speeches, and announcements
• Also the style that is used for academic and business
writing
a. Interruptions are not allowed.
b. Pronunciation is very clear.
c. Words are carefully chosen, and grammar rules are
followed.
d. Sentence structures are more complex and varied.
e. Extensive and technical vocabulary is required.
f. Ideas are cohesive and organized.
g. All background or necessary information is clearly given.
Frozen Speech Style

• Also called the oratorical style

• The most formal style and is reserved for very formal
situations such as in religious services, state affairs, and
court proceedings
• Used to address or is given before an audience of absolute
strangers
• Uses prescribed and highly formal language
a. It uses “frozen” language.
b. It has a symbolic or historical nature.
c. It is typically prescribed by law, custom, or
ritual.
d. It involves certain fixed or stock expressions
that are rarely or never altered or changed.
1.3 MODELS OF COMMUNICATION
TRANSMISSION/ LINEAR MODELS

⮚Communication is a one-way process in which

only the communicator is the active participant.

⮚The recipient, meanwhile, processes the

information but does not reciprocate the message.
Lasswell’s Communication Model (1948)

Laswell's communication model was developed by communication theorist

Harold D. Lasswell (1902-1978) in 1948. Laswell's model of
communication (also known as action model or linear model)is regarded
as one of the most influential communication models

Who Says In Which To Whom With what

What Channel Effect?
COMMUNICATOR MESSAGE MEDIUM RECEIVER EFFECT
EXAMPLES:
⮚Radio and television broadcasting
⮚Resource speaker in a large auditorium
⮚Reading magazines, books, or newspapers
RECEPTION/INTERACTIVE MODEL

⮚Communication as a “Dynamics exchange”

-the communicator and the recipient take turns to
speak and to listen to each other.
⮚The key element is feedback: reaction to a message.
⮚The process is repeated, making the sender a
receiver and vice versa.
Shannon-Weaver’s Communication Model (1948)

Shannon-Weaver model of communication was created

1949 when Claude Elwood Shannon wrote an article “A
Mathematical Theory of Commumication” in Bell System
Technical Journal with Warren Weaver.

Shannon was an American mathematician whereas

Weaver was a scientist. The Mathematical theory later
came to be known as Shannon-Weaver model of
communication or “mother of all models.” This model is
more technological.
Shannon-Weaver’s Communication Model (1949)
EXAMPLE:
EXAMPLE:

It is already 11:00 AM and you feel your stomach

grumbling. As you listen to the speaker, you can hear
what he is saying, but the message does not get into
your heart. And when you look at your wristwatch, in
your mind you are already imagining the food that you
are going to buy for lunch.
Osgood- Schramm Model Of Communication (1954)

The Osgood-Schramm model built on the theory that

communication is a two-way street, with a sender and receiver.
Charles Egerton Osgood popularized the notion that
communication was a circular rather than linear, meaning that it
required two participants taking turns sending and receiving.
Later, Wilbur Schramm, who talked about the model in his
book, The Process and Effects of Communication, adapted the
model and added the notion of field of experience, or
commonality, to the mix.
 Field of Experience incorporates what is mutually
understood between the sender and receiver.
Example:
A professor of calculus would have a very little luck
communicating important math principles to a classroom
of grade 3 pupils, because they do not share a field of
experience that makes the message easy to understand.
Osgood- Schramm Model Of Communication (1954)
Berlo’s SMCR Model of Communication (1960)

In 1960, David Berlo postulated Berlo's Sender-Message-

Channel-Receiver (SMCR) model of communication from
Shannon Weaver's Model of Communication (1948). He
described factors affecting the individual components in
communication more efficient.
The model also focuses on encoding and decoding which
happens before the sender sends the message and before
the receiver receives the message respectively.
Berlo’s SMCR Model of Communication (1960)
SENDER-RECEIVER

Communication Skills
Communication skills of a person is a factor that affects the communication process. If
the sender has good communication skills, the message will be communicated better
than if the sender’s communication skills are not good. Similarly, if the receiver can not
grasp the message, then the communication will not be effective. Communication skills
include the skills to speak, present, read, write, listening, etc.
Attitude
The attitude of the sender and the receiver creates the effect of the message. The
person’s attitude towards self, the receiver and the environment changes the meaning
and effect of the message.
Social Systems
Values, beliefs, laws, rules, religion and many other social factors affect the sender’s
way of communicating the message. It creates difference in the generation of message.
Place and situation also fall under social systems.
Culture
Cultural differences make messages different. A person from one culture might find
something offensive which is very much accepted in another culture.
Knowledge
Familiarity with the subject of the message makes the communicated message have its
effect more. Knowledge on the subject matter makes the communicator send the
message effectively.
MESSAGE
Content
Content is the thing that is in the message. The whole message from beginning to end
is the content.

Elements
Elements are the non verbal things that tag along with the content like gestures, signs,
language, etc.

Treatment
Treatment is the way in which the message is conveyed to the receiver. Treatment also
effects the feedback of the receiver.
MESSAGE

Structure
The structure of the message or the way it has been structured or arranged, affects the
effectiveness of the message.

Code
Code is the form in which the message is sent. It might be in the form of language, text,
video, etc.
EXAMPLES:

⮚Oral conversation
⮚Sending text or e-mail messages
⮚Telephone conversation
⮚Sign language
 THE GATEKEEPER MODEL

⮚Mass communication—that is, how an audience

receives information from media, the intermediaries of
information.

⮚Media- takes the role of the gatekeeper- has the

capacity to control what the audience will know.
EXAMPLES:

⮚The Movie and Television Review and

Classification Board(MTRCB)
⮚General Patronage (G)
⮚Parental Guidance (PG)
⮚Strong Parental guidance (SPG)
⮚Restricted for 17 years and below (R-18)
 ECOLOGICAL MODEL
⮚It is proposed by Davis Foulger (2004)
⮚Ecological model is termed and originated from the
word “ecology”.
⮚Ecology refers to the environment where people
interact among each other, using a particular language
that they commonly understand.
 EXAMPLES:

⮚A group of lawyers perhaps talks about plea bargaining

agreement, the writ of habeas corpus, an amended
complaint, a warrant, inquest proceedings, and reclusion
perpetua
⮚A group of doctors can conveniently talk about lobotomy,
CT-scan, biopsy, appendectomy, and varicose bleeding.
⮚In Ecological Model, the people talking would perfectly
understand one another . It is because the message is
clearly understood by each one , using the language
within the medium of their environment.
⮚In the given example, the “consumers” or the users of
the language have the capability to interpret the
language and provide feedback.
1.4 PRINCIPLES OF EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION
Basic Principles of Effective Communication

1. Conciseness
2. Clarity
3. Correctness
4. Concreteness
5. Coherence
6. Courteousness
7. Completeness
1.5 ETHICS OF COMMUNICATION
 Ten Basics of Ethical Communication
1. Seek to “elicit the best” in communications and interactions with other group members.
2. Listen when others speak.
3. Speak non-judgmentally.
4. Speak from your own experience and perspective, expressing your own thoughts, needs, and feelings.
5. Seek to understand others (rather than to be “right” or “more ethical than thou”).
6. Avoid speaking for others, for example by characterizing what others have said without checking your
understanding, or by universalizing your opinions, beliefs, values, and conclusions, assuming everyone shares
them.
7. Manage your own personal boundaries: share only what you are comfortable sharing.
8. Respect the personal boundaries of others.
9. Avoid interrupting and side conversations.
10.Make sure that everyone has time to speak, that all members have relatively equal “air time” if they want it.
BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION
1. PHYSIOLOGICAL BARRIER 2. ENVIRONMENTAL BARRIERS
⮚ Poor retention due to memory ⮚ Loud background noise
problem ⮚ Poor lighting
⮚ Lack of attention
⮚ Uncomfortable setting
⮚ Discomfort due to illness
⮚ ⮚ Unhygienic surrounding & bad
Poor sensory perception odor
⮚ Hearing problems
⮚ Very hot or cold room
⮚ Poor listening skills
⮚ ⮚ Distance
Information overload
⮚ Gender physiological
differences
3. PSYCHOLOGICAL BARRIERS 4.SEMANTIC BARRIERS
⮚ Misperception &
⮚ Language barriers
misunderstanding
⮚ Faulty language translation
⮚ Distrust & unhappy emotions
⮚ Psychotic or neurotic illness
⮚ Individual differences in
expression & perception
⮚ Worry & emotional disturbances
⮚ Past experiences of an individual
⮚ Fear, anxiety & confused thinking failure to listen
5. SOCIAL BARRIERS 6. CULTURAL BARRIERS
⮚ Difference in social norms, ⮚ Ethnic, religious & cultural
values & behavior differences

⮚ Social taboos ⮚ Cultural tradition, values &

behavior
⮚ Different social strata
7. ORGANIZATIONAL BARRIERS
⮚ Organizational policy, rules &
regulation
⮚ Technical failure
⮚ Time pressure
⮚ Complexity of organization
structure due to hierarchy
⮚ Size of the organization
8. COMMUNICATION PROCESS-
RELATED BARRIERS
⮚ Unclear & conflicting message
⮚ Stereotypical approach
⮚ Inappropriate channels
⮚ Lack of or poor feedback
 METHODS TO OVERCOME BARRIERS OF
COMMUNICATION
1. PHYSIOLOGICAL BARRIERS
⮚ Keep in each other’s retention & recollection abilities.
⮚ Pay attention during the sharing of information.
⮚ Ensure each other's comfort.
⮚ Ensure the intactness of sensory perception.
⮚ Keep in mind the limitation of hearing abilities.
⮚ Demonstrate active listening
⮚ Avoid Information overload.
2. ENVIRONMENTAL BARRIERS
⮚ Ensure to have good lighting to facilitate nonverbal communication.
⮚ Keep a comfortable seating arrangement
⮚ Maintain a hygienic & odor-free environment
3. PSYCHOLOGICAL BARRIERS
⮚ Happy & trustworthy manner
⮚ Do not harbor negative emotions
⮚ Avoid feeling of prejudice, resentment & antagonism.
⮚ Free yourself from fear, anxiety & confusion
4. SEMANTIC BARRIERS
⮚ Use the same language.
⮚ Consider differences in the expression & perception of message.
5. SOCIAL BARRIERS
⮚ Consider the differences in social norms, values & behavior.
⮚ Keep in mind the Social beliefs of other people

6. CULTURAL BARRIERS
⮚ Consider cultural differences.
⮚ Consider cultural traditions, values & behavior.
7. ORGANIZATIONAL BARRIERS
⮚ Consider Organizational policy, rules & regulation
⮚ Keep the organization structure simple & noncomplex
⮚ Divide the large organization into smaller subset

8. COMMUNICATION PROCESS-RELATED BARRIERS

⮚ Use an appropriate channel must.
⮚ Avoid a stereotypical approach in communication.
⮚ keep the message clear & non-conflicting
⮚ Ensure to provide proper feedback