•UNIT 3: CELL: STRUCTURE AND

FUNCTION
Ch 12: Cell: The Unit Of Life
• What is a cell?
• A cell is defined as the most basic,
structural and functional unit of all
living organisms. The cell is the simplest A typical cell(generalised)
structure capable of existing as an
individual living unit. Eg., unicellular
organisms like Paramecium, Amoeba are
capable of (i) individual existence and (ii)
performing all external functions of life
 Discovery of Cell:
Robert Hooke, an English scientist(1665) was the
first person to observe cells. He studied a thin slice
of cork under his self-made
microscope(compound light) consisting of only a
combination of magnifying lenses fixed in a tube.
He observed box-like compartments resembling a
honey comb and gave them the term cells. This
came from the Latin word Cella, meaning ‘a
small room’ like monks lived in and also Cellulae,
which meant the six sided cell of a honeycomb.
Later with advanced techniques and refinement in
microscopes, scientists could study the fine
ultrastructure of a cell.
Contributions of some important scientists:
The father of microbiology-
Anton van Leeuwenhoek
• Leeuwenhoek looked at animal and plant
tissues. He discovered blood cells, and was
the first to see living sperm cells of
Anton van Leeuwenhoek
animals. The first man to witness a live
cell under a microscope was Anton van
Leeuwenhoek, who in 1674 described the
algae Spirogyra. Van Leeuwenhoek
discovered "protozoa" - the single-celled
organisms and he called them
"animalcules"
Differences between Unicellular and Multicellular Organisms
Unicellular Organisms
They are composed of a single cell.
Single cell carries out all the vital functions of life.
The total cell is exposed to the environment.
They are usually microscopic (small) and are less
complex. E.g: amoeba, paramecium, yeast, bacteria
Division of labour is at the organelle level.
Includes both eukaryotes and prokaryotes
Cell differentiation is generally absent
The body organization of unicellular organisms can be
described as simple.
Multicellular Organisms
They are composed of more than one cell.
Different cells carry out different functions.
Only the outer cells are exposed to the environment.
They are large and more complex. .g: plants, animals,
birds, insects etc.
Division of labour is at the cellular, tissue, organs and
organ system level
Includes only eukaryotes
Cell differentiation is present eg., muscle cells help in the
movement of body parts, nerve cells give response to
stimuli
The body organization of multicellular organisms can be
described as complex.
 CELL THEORY
The cell theory was proposed in 1839
by Schleiden(a German botanist) and
Schwann(a British Zoologist). Later i9n
1855, Virchow made an addition to the Matthias Jakob Schleiden
cell theory. (1804–1881)

According to the cell theory:

• All living organisms are composed of
one or more cells. Theodor Schwann (1810–1882)
• The cell is the basic unit of structure
and organization in organisms.
• Cells arise from pre-existing
cells(omnis cellula e cellula).
Rudolf Virchow(1821-1902)
 Modern Version of the Cell Theory

According to the Modern version of the Cell theory:

•All living organisms are made up of cells. A cell is the basic structural unit of life.
•Cell is also the smallest functional unit of life.
•All cells arise from pre-existing cells by cell division.
•Cells contain and pass on hereditary information during cell division.
•All cells are relatively the same in relation to chemical composition and metabolic
activity.
 Variations in Cells
• Cells are of different shape, size and structure
according to the function they needs to perform.
Number: The number of cells in an organism is
generally related to its size.
• Smaller the organism, lesser the number of cells.
• Larger organisms like trees and whales are made
up of millions of cells.
Size: The cell size can vary from being very
small(microscopic ) to very large. The microscopic
cells are measured in micrometer.
PROKARYOTIC AND EUKARYOTIC
CELLS(AN OVERVIEW)
Cells can be classified into two groups
depending on the complexity of organization in
them:
1. Prokaryotic cells-(pro-early/primitive;
karyon-nucleus)
2. Eukaryotic cells-(eu-true; karyon-nucleus)
 Characteristic features of prokaryotic cells:
1. They do not possess a true nucleus.
2. The genetic material is not enclosed
by a membrane. It lies free in the
cytoplasm.
3. The genetic material is in the form
of a single circular chromosome.
4. The chromosome is present in the
cytoplasm in a nuclear region called
nucleoid.
5. They lack all membrane bound
organelles which indicates their
primitive nature. A generalised typical structure of a prokaryotic
cell(bacterium)
• Eg., Bacteria, Cyanobacteria
General Features of a prokaryotic Cell(Bacterial Cell)

• 1.Capsule/Slime layer
(Glycocalyx) Cell
• 2. Cell Wall Envelope

• 3. Plasma Membrane
• 4. Cytoplasm
• 5.Genetic Material
• 6.Flagella
• 7.Pili and Fimbriae
• 8.Plasmid
ULTRASTRUCTURE OF BACTERIA(PROKARYOTIC
CELL)

A. CELL ENVELOPE AND ITS MODIFICATION

 1. Glycocalyx:
Capsule/Slime layer
• Many bacterial cells secrete
some extracellular material
in the form of a capsule or
a slime layer. A slime layer
is loosely associated with
the bacterium and can be
easily washed off, whereas
a capsule is attached
tightly to the bacterium and
has definite boundaries.

Glycocalyx: network of polysaccharides that project

from cellular surfaces of bacteria
What is the function of Glycocalyx?

• These give additional protection to the bacteria during unfavourable

conditions.
• The enable the bacteria to stick to each other and form colonies.
• These enable the bacteria to stick to the surface of food or to the host.
• The presence of capsule is an indication of virulence of some bacteria
eg., Diplococcus that causes pneumonia has capsule.
 2. Cell wall

It is the second layer present beneath the glycocalyx.

Functions:
Provides Shape: it gives characteristic shape to the bacteria.
Protection: It gives protection against mechanical injury,
chemical injury and pathogen.
Structural Support: It prevents the bacteria from bursting if
placed in a hypotonic solution.
Structure:
Cell wall is made up of peptidoglycan/murein(a network of polysaccharide(glycan) connected
to polypeptide by crosslinks.
Peptidoglycan provides a strong but flexible support framework. Thus layer differs in gram
positive and gram negative bacteria.
A number of antibiotics like penicillin inhibit the crosslinking of peptidoglycan layer. This
results in lysis of the bacteria. Naturally occurring enzyme(lysozyme) in saliva and tears also
provides defence against certain bacteria by hydrolysing the peptidoglycan layer.
 3. Cell Membrane
Structure:
• It is inner to the cell wall and forms a boundary of the cytoplasm.
• It is selectively permeable membrane. Thus it allows only selected molecules and ions to
pass through. It is responsible for the interaction of the cell to the outer environment.
• It has certain carrier molecules embedded within the membrane that binds to specific
molecules and transport them in a specific direction.
• Unlike the eukaryotic cell, the cell membrane of bacteria lack cholesterol in their bilipid layer.
Functions:
• It retains the cytoplasm and separates it from the external surroundings.
• Serves as a selectively permeable membrane allowing particular ions and molecules to pass
in and out while preventing the others.
• Helps in the transport system of the cell like the nutrient uptake, waste secretion, protein
secretion etc.
• It is the location of important metabolic processes like respiration, photosynthesis, lipid
synthesis etc.
• It has receptor molecules that helps the bacteria to detect and respond to chemicals in their
surroundings.
B. GRAM STAINING: GRAM POSITIVE AND GRAM
NEGATIVE BACTERIA
 Gram positive and Gram negative bacteria

Blue/purple
Bacteria + Crystal Violet Dye
stained bacterial
cell

Treated with 0.5% iodine

solution and then washed
with alcohol

Retain the blue/purple Do not retain blue/purple Ethyl alcohol is a nonpolar solvent, and thus
colour colour penetrates the cell walls of Gram negative cells
more readily and removes the crystal violet-iodine
complex.
Gram positive Gram Negative Gram stain is named after the Danish bacteriologist
bacteria Bacteria Hans Christian Gram
Reason for Gram Positive Bacteria to stain blue/purple with Gram
Stain
The Gram Positive bacteria
have a thick peptidoglycan
layer that traps the violet dye.
(Gram Stain). So the bacteria
appear blue/purple in colour.
The Gram Negative bacteria
have a thin peptidoglycan
layer( located between the
plasma membrane and the outer
membrane) and so they do not
retain the crystal violet dye.
Differences Between Gram Positive and Gram Negative Bacteria
Gram Positive Bacteria
1. The bacteria remain blue or purple with Gram
staining even after washing with alcohol.
2. Outer membrane is absent
3. Cell wall is 20-80 nm thick.
4. Mesosomes are quite prominent.
5. Basal body of flagellum contains 2 rings.
6. Susceptible to lysozyme.
7.A few pathogenic bacteria belongs to this group.
Gram Negative Bacteria
1. The bacteria do not retain the stain after washing
with alcohol.
2. Outer membrane is present
3. Cell wall is 8-12 nm thick.
4. Mesosomes are less prominent.
5. Basal body of flagellum contains 4 rings.
6. Resistant to lysozyme due to the presence of lipid
rich layer.
7. Most of the pathogenic bacteria belongs to this
group.
 C. Mesosomes and Chromatophores
• Mesosome is a convoluted membranous structure formed in a prokaryotic cell by the
invagination of the plasma membrane. Its functions are as follows :
• These extensions help in the synthesis of the cell wall.
• They help in the replication of DNA.
• They also help in the equal distribution of chromosomes into the daughter cells.
• They help in respiration.
• They help in the secretion process.
• They help to increase the surface area of the plasma membrane and the enzyme content.

Chromatophores
• In some prokaryotes, like cyanobacteria, these are membranous extensions into the
cytoplasm.
• These are internal membrane system containing pigments.
• They are extensive and complex in photosynthetic bacteria like cyanobacteria and purple
bacteria.
D. Modifications/extensions at Prokaryotic Cell Surface
• The bacterial cells which are motile possess thin filamentous extensions from the
cell wall called flagella.
Flagellum
• Bacteria may contain one or many flagella.
• Flagella helps bacteria to move and respond to certain stimuli.
• Flagellum originates from a basal body in the plasma membrane.
• Bacterial flagellum is composed of three parts:
(i) Filament –It is a cylindrical, hollow, rigid structure made up of protein
flagellin.
(ii) Hook- It is made up of different protein subunits
(iii) Basal Body- it is the most complex part of the flagellum
• Consists of 4 rings in gram negative and 2 rings in gram positive bacteria.
• The inner ring is connected to the plasma membrane
• The outer ring is connected to the peptidoglycan portion of the cell wall
• The filament which is attached to the hook passes through the cell wall and
membrane and is attached to the rings.
• The filament rotates 3600 .
• Thus the flagellum acts like a propeller and pulls the bacteria through the water.
 PILLI AND FIMBRIAE
• Pilli and Fimbriae are projections on the bacterial cell surface and are not used for
locomotion.
PILLI:
• They are made up of protein pilin.
• Pilli are present in Gram Negative bacteria.
• They help the bacteria to stick to each other during the mating process called
conjugation.
FIMBRIAE:
• They are made up of helically/spirally arranged protein subunits.
• They help the bacteria to stick to each other and form colonies.
• They also help the bacteria to stick to host cells or other surfaces like rocks etc.
 E. NUCLEOID REGION
• Prokaryotic cells do not have a well defined nucleus.
• The genetic material is in the form of a single circular DNA present in
the centre of the cell in an area called the nucleoid.
• Nuclear membrane is absent.
• Nucleoid is usually attached to the mesosome .
GENETIC MATERIAL:
The genetic material consists of a single circular DNA.
The DNA is packed in the nucleoid region.
The DNA is double stranded and coiled in a loop with the help of nucleoid
protein. Histone proteins are absent in prokaryotic cell.
 F. Ribosomes and Inclusion Bodies
RIBOSOMES:
• Ribosomes are scattered in the cytoplasm. They may
also remain attached to the plasma membrane.
• A complete prokaryotic ribosome is 70 S (S being the
Svedberg Unit)It is made up of two subunits of 50 S
and 30 S.(The S value is not proportionate to molecular
weight).
• Ribosomes are the sites of protein synthesis.
• The proteins synthesised by ribosomes present in the
cytoplasm remain within the cells.
• The proteins that are synthesised by ribosomes attached
to the plasma membrane are transported outside.
Svedberg units are not directly additive since they represent a rate of sedimentation, not
POLYRIBOSOME:
weight.
Often several ribosomes are attached to a single
mRNA. Such a complex consisting of a number of
ribosomes on a single mRNA is called a polyribosome
or polysome.
Polyribosome
 Inclusion Bodies
• The reserve material in bacteria is stored in the cytoplasm as inclusion bodies or
storage granules.
Storage food granules e.g., glycogen granules, cyanophycean granules

Inclusion Bodies Organic Inclusion e.g., gas vacuoles

Inorganic Inclusion e.g., volutin granules(phosphate granules), sulphur granules

Storage Food Granules:
The inclusion bodies are not bounded by any membrane system. They lie free in the cytoplasm
Gas Vacuoles: These are organic inclusion bodies that usually occur in cyanobacteria, purple and green photosynthetic
bacteria. They are aggregates of small, hollow cylindrical gas vesicles. Each gas vesicle is surrounded by protein membrane.
They keep the bacteria floating on or near the water surface.
They help bacteria to keep their position in water for trapping sunlight for photosynthesis and for avoiding tense sunlight.
Inorganic Inclusions:
(i) Volutin Granules: They function as a storage reservoir for phosphate that acts as a reserve store of energy.
(ii) Sulphur Granules: They store sulphur. They are temporarily formed when bacteria uses hydrogen sulphide as
electron donor during photosynthesis (in sulphur bacteria). ( Only gas vacuoles and sulphur vacuoles have non-unit
membrane structure)
 FORMS OF BACTERIA
• There are 4 basic forms of bacteria:
1. Coccus: Spherical shaped bacteria eg.,
Micrococcus flavus
• Monococcus: Present singly
• Diplococcus: Joined in groups of two.
Staphylococcus: Present as clusters of cells.
• Streptococcus: Present in the form of long
chains or filaments.
2. Bacillus: Rod shaped or cylindrical
shaped bacteria. The cells normally remains
single but may occur in pairs or chains. Different Forms of Bacteria
eg.,E. coli
• Diplobacillus: Joined in pairs
• Streptobacillus: Form filaments, in groups
of more than two
• 3. Spirillum: Coiled or
twisted. Some may be highly
but twisted like a
corkscrew.eg., Spirochaetes
• 4. Vibrio: Comma shaped
bacteria or slightly curved
bacteria. Eg., Vibrio cholerae