Chapter 2

Scientific Investigation
CHAPTER OUTLINE:

1. What is scientific investigation?

2. The importance of scientific investigation
3. The hallmarks of scientific research
4. Some obstacles to conducting scientific research in the management area
5. Reasoning: Deduction and Induction
6. Research Approach: Quantitative, Qualitative, Mixed Methods
7. Research Paradigm: Positivism, Constructivism, Pragmatism
8. Hypothetico-Deductive Research
 Scientific Research
• Focuses on solving problems and pursues a step-by-step logical, organized, and rigorous
method to identify the problems, gather data, analyze them, and draw valid conclusions
from them.

• Not based on hunches, experience, and intuition (though these may play a part in final
decision making), but is purposive and rigorous.

• Helps researchers to state their findings with accuracy and confidence.

• Tends to be more objective than subjective and helps managers and business people
highlight the most critical factors at their organizations that need specific attention so as
to avoid, minimize or identify and solve problems.
 Scientific Research
• The term scientific research applies to both basic and applied research.

• Applied research may or may not be generalizable to other organizations, depending on

the extent to which differences exist in such things as size, nature of work, characteristics
of the people and or structure of the entire organization.

• Has to be an organized and systematic process where problems and opportunities are
carefully identified, data, scientifically gathered and analyzed, and conclusions are drawn
in an objective manner for effective decision-making.

• Scientific investigation and managerial decision-making are integral aspects of effective

problem-solving
 The importance of scientific investigation
• Because of the rigorous way in which it is done, scientific research enables:
• those who are interested in researching and knowing about the same/similar issues to come up with
comparable findings when the data are analyzed.
• state their findings with accuracy and confidence - helps various other organizations to apply those
solutions when they encounter similar problems.
• managers to highlight the most critical factors at the workplace that need specific attention so as to
avoid, minimize, or solve problems - tends to be more objective than subjective

• When a Researcher Does Not Apply the Scientific Approach:

• Does not warrant investment of these resources to do thorough, rigorous scientific research.
• When a decision needs to be made quickly, lack of knowledge and other factors can prompt businesses
to try and solve problems based on hunches.
• Rash decisions on critical matters may result in failed implementation of plans.
Hallmarks of scientific research
• Purposiveness
• The situation in which research is focused on solving a well-identified and defined problem, rather than
aimlessly looking for answers to vague questions

• Rigor
• Based on a solid theoretical base and sound methodological design using appropriate instruments to meet the
stated objectives

• Testability
• The ability to subject the data collected to appropriate statistical tests, in order to substantiate or reject the
hypotheses developed for the research study.

• Replicability
• Results can be supported again and again when the same type of research is repeated.
Hallmarks of scientific research
• Accuracy - Precision and Confidence
• The degree of closeness of the estimated sample characteristics to the population parameters, determined by the extent of the
variability of the sampling distribution of the sample mean.
• The probability estimate of how much reliance can be placed on the findings; the usual accepted level of confidence in social
science research is 95%.

• Objectivity
• Conclusions drawn based on the interpretation of results and facts based on findings derived from the results of analyzing
actual data.

• Generalizability
• The applicability of research findings in one setting to others.

• Parsimony
• Efficient explanation of the variance in the dependent variable of interest through the use of a smaller, rather than a larger
number of independent variables.
 Some obstacles to conducting scientific research
in the management and behavioral areas

• It is not always to conduct in 100% scientific as the results obtained will

not exact and error-free.
• Measurement and data collection involves subjective concept such as
feelings, emotions, attitudes, and perceptions.
• Difficulty in obtaining a representative sample restricting the
generalizability of the findings.
Reasoning
• A thought process that takes place which allows us to reach a
conclusion.
• Two types:
i. Deductive Approach - take universal arguments and arrive at a more micro
conclusion.
ii. Inductive Approach - build a conclusion based on smaller truths or a set of
beliefs and formulate a universal conclusion.
 Deductive Approach
• Application of a general theory to a specific case.
• Hypothesis testing

Theory

Develop Hypothesis

Collect and Analyze Data

Reject / Not Reject Hypothesis

 Inductive Approach
• A process where we observe specific phenomena and on this basis arrive
at general conclusions.
• Counting white swans

Observe Phenomena

Analyze Patterns and Themes

Formulate Relationships

Develop Theory
The Mixed Approach (Deductive and
Inductive) Process
Develop/ Use
Existing Theory

Formulate Develop
Relationships Hypothesis

Analyse Patterns Collect and

and Themes Analyse Data

Observe
Reject/Not Reject
Phenomena Hypothesis and
based on Make Conclusions
Conclusions
Research Approaches
• Qualitative Research – exploring and understanding the meaning
individuals or groups ascribe to be social or human problem.

• Quantitative Research – testing objective theories by examining the

relationship among variables.

• Mixed Methods Research – an approach to inquiry that combines or

associates both qualitative and quantitative forms.
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Research Paradigms
• Positivism - belief that by using science we can measure, classify and
understand a particular phenomenon; post positivists take into
consideration the fact that many interpretations may be based on
assumptions and conjectures.

• Social Constructivism - researchers seeks understanding of the world

they live and work in and focus on qualitative descriptors; allow
participants to construct their own “meaning” of the situation.

• Pragmatism - looking at the present situation and questioning what

works for the situation at hand and getting solutions to the problems
Hypothetico-Deductive Research
• The Seven-Step Process in the Hypothetico-Deductive Method
• Identify a broad problem area
• Define the problem statement
• Develop hypotheses
• Determine measures
• Data collection
• Data analysis
• Interpretation of data