INTRODUCTIO

NTitration
. .
is a technique to determine the co
. nce ntra tion of an un kno w n so lution .
Titration is the slow addition of one solution of a
known concentration (called a titrant or titrator) to a
known volume of another solution of unknown
concentration (called a titrand or analyte) until the
reaction reaches neutralization, which is often indicated
by a color change.

🞂 Also known as Titrimetry or Volumetric Titration.

Elements of Titration. . .
The standard solution: the
solution of
known concentration.
An accurately measured amount
of standard solution is added
during titration to the solution of
unknown concentration until the
equivalence or endpoint is
reached.

The analyte: the solution

unknown concentration of
known as the analyte. is
During titration the titrant is
added to the analyte in order to
achieve the equivalence point and
determine
the
The equivalence point: the point when the reactants are
done reacting.
The equivalence point is the ideal point for the
completion of titration. At the equivalence point the
correct amount of standard solution must be added
to fully react with the unknown concentration.

The end point: it indicates once the equivalence point has

been reached. It is indicated by some form of indicator which
varies depending on what type of titration being done. For
example, if a color indicator is used, the solution will change
color when the titration is at its end point.
 Equivalence point & E nd point are
not necessarily equal.

An endpoint is indicated by some form of indicator at the

end of a titration.

An equivalence point is when the of

amoles
standard solution (titrant) equal the moles of a
solution of unknown concentration (analyte).
The calibrated buret: it is the main
piece of equipment required for a titration
method.

A buret is a long cylindrical piece of

glass with an open top for pouring in the
titrant. At the bottom there is a carefully
formed tip for dispensing.

Burets usually have a plastic stopper that

can easily be turned to deliver mere
fractions of a drop of titrant, if needed.
Burettes come in many sizes and are
marked in millilitres and fractions of
millilitres.
The Indicator: the use of an indicator is key in performing a
successful titration reaction. The purpose of the indicator is to show when
enough standard solution has been added to fully react with the unknown
concentration.
Indicators must only be added to the solution of unknown concentration
when no visible reaction will occur. Depending on the solution being
titrated, the choice of indicator can become key for the success of the
titration.
Titration with an Indicator . . .
MATERIAL
S ..
~Erlenmeyer flask or Beaker

.~Excess amount of standard solution (titrant)

~A precisely measured amount of analyte; this will be

used to make the solution of unknown concentration

~Indicator

~Calibrated Buret

~Buret Stand
PROCEDUR
E .
Obtain all necessary materials .and clean all
necessary items with distilled water
.
Measure out a precise amount of analyte &
make up the solution of unknown concentration

Quantitatively transfer the analyte

into a beaker or
Erlenmeyer flask

Add additional distilled water until the

analyte is fully dissolved. Measure and
record volume of aqueous solution

Add four to five drops of the

appropriate
color indicator into the beaker
Swirl the beaker in order to mix the aqueous
solution of the analyte and the drops of indicator

Fill the buret with an excess amount of titrant, the

standard solution of known concentration and
should be in aqueous form

Clamp the buret carefully to a burette stand. The

tip of the burette should not be touching any
surfaces

Place the beaker containing the aqueous solution

of unknown concentration under the burette

Record the initial volume of the buret. Make sure

to measure at the bottom of the meniscus
Turn on the stopcock (tap) of the buret so that standard
solution is added to the beaker. This should cause a color
change so be sure to swirl the beaker until the color
disappears

Repeat the above step until the color does not disappear.
This means you have reached the endpoint

Stop when you've reached endpoint, which is the point

when the reactant within the solution of unknown
concentration has been completely neutralized

Measure and record your final volume of the burette.

Calculate the volume of standard solution used by
subtracting the initial volume measurement from the final
volume measurement of the burette

Now perform the necessary calculations in order to

obtain the concentration of the unknown solution
TYPES Of Titrations
.There are
. .many types of titrations with
different procedures and goals.

Acid – Base titration

Redox titration
Gas phase titration
Complexometric titration
Back titration
Karl Fischer titration
(Potentiometric)
Acid– Base titration:
Acid-base titrations depend on the neutralization between
an acid and a base when mixed in solution.

In addition to the sample, an appropriate indicator is

added to the titration chamber, reflecting the pH range of
the equivalence point.

The acid-base indicator indicates the endpoint of the

titration by changing color.
The final solution after titration should be neutralized and
contain equal moles of hydroxide and hydrogen ions. So the
moles of acid should equal the moles of base:
Some common Indicators used in acid –
base titration:
Redox titration
Redox titrations are based on a reduction-oxidation reaction
between an oxidizing agent and a reducing agent.

A potentiometer or a redox indicator is usually used to

determine the endpoint of the titration.

Some redox titrations do not require an indicator, due to the

intense color of the constituents.

For instance, in permanganometry a slight persisting pink color

signals the endpoint of the titration because of the color of the
excess oxidizing agent potassium permanganate
Gas phase titration:
Gas phase titrations are titrations done in the gas phase,
specifically as methods for determining reactive species by
reaction with an excess of some other gas, acting as the
titrant.

In one common gas phase titration, gaseous ozone is

titrated with nitrogen oxide according to the reaction.

After the reaction is complete, the remaining titrant and

product are quantified - this is used to determine the
amount of analyte in the original sample.
Complexometric titration:
Complexometric titrations

■ rely on the formation of a complex

between the analyte and the titrant.

In general, they require specialized

indicators that form weak
complexes with the analyte.

Common examples are Eriochrome

Black T for the titration of calcium
and magnesium ions, and the
chelating agent EDTA used to titrate
metal ions in solution.
Back titration:
Back titration is a titration done in reverse- instead of
titrating the original sample, a known excess of standard
reagent is added to the solution, and the excess is titrated.

A back titration is useful if the endpoint of the reverse

titration is easier to identify than the endpoint of the
normal titration, as with precipitation reactions.

Back titrations are also useful if the reaction between the

analyte and the titrant is very slow, or when the analyte is
in a non-soluble solid.
Karl Fischer titration:
A potentiometric method to
analyze trace amounts of
water in a substance.

A sample is dissolved in
methanol, and titrated with
Karl Fischer reagent. The
reagent contains iodine,
which
reacts
proportionally with water.

Thus, the water content can

be determined by
monitoring the potential of
excess iodine.
Titration CURVES . . .
The graphs of titration curves effectively show the
relationship between the pH of the solution of unknown
concentration as the standard solution is added to it
in order to reach neutralization.
In biodiesel: Waste vegetable oil (WVO) must be
neutralized before a batch may be processed. A portion of
WVO is titrated with a base to determine acidity, so the
rest of the batch may be properly neutralized. This
removes free fatty acids from the WVO that would
normally react to make soap instead of biodiesel.

Kjeldahl method: A measure of nitrogen content in a

sample. Organic nitrogen is digested into ammonia with
sulfuric acid and potassium sulfate. Finally, ammonia is
back titrated with boric acid and then sodium carbonate.
Benedict's reagent: Excess glucose in urine may indicate
diabetes in the patient. Benedict's method is the
conventional method to quantify glucose in urine using a
prepared reagent. In this titration, glucose reduces cupric
ions to cuprous ions which react with potassium
thiocyanate to produce a white precipitate, indicating the
endpoint.