Introduction to Physiology

Austin Busang Siziba

Office 88, West Wing
Physiology Unit
0778 124 173
Key Texts
• Vander’s Human Physiology, 13th Edition
• Guyton and Hall Textbook of Human Physiology, 13th Edition
• Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology
• Berne and Levy Physiology
 Definition
• Physiology is the study of how living organisms function
• Physiologists are interested in function and integration; how parts of
the body work together at various levels of organization and, most
importantly, in the entire organism
• Many areas of function are still only poorly understood, such as how
the workings of the brain produce conscious thought and memory
• Some disease states can be viewed as physiology “gone wrong,” or
pathophysiology , which makes an understanding of physiology
essential for the study and practice of medicine
Topics
• Cell Physiology
• Excitable Cells
• Blood Physiology
• Endocrinology
• GIT
• Reproductive Physiology
• Respiratory Physiology
• Cardiovascular Physiology
• Renal Physiology
• Neurophysiology
 Necessary Life Functions I
1. Maintaining boundaries – the internal environment remains distinct
from the external
• Cellular level – accomplished by plasma membranes
• Organismal level – accomplished by the skin
2. Movement – locomotion, propulsion (peristalsis), and contractility
3. Responsiveness – ability to sense changes in the environment and
respond to them
4. Digestion – breakdown of ingested foodstuff
 Necessary Life Functions II
5. Metabolism – all the chemical reactions that occur in the body
6. Excretion – removal of wastes from the body
7. Reproduction – cellular and organismal levels
• Cellular – an original cell divides and produces two identical daughter
cells
• Organismal – sperm and egg unite to make a whole new person
8. Growth – increase in size of a body part or of the organism
 Homeostasis: A Defining Feature of
Physiology
• The maintenance of a stable “ milieu interieur”.
(Claude Bernard, 1813 - 1878)
• Why do we need a stable, internal environment?
• Prevent denaturation of proteins
• To keep cells under optimum conditions for function
and survival
• Homeostasis is the ability to maintain a relatively
stable internal environment in an ever-changing
outside world
• The internal environment of the body is in a dynamic
state of equilibrium
• Chemical, thermal, and neural factors interact to
maintain homeostasis
Organism
Physiology
I

Physiology
System/Organ
Levels of Homeostasis

2 NH4+ 2 NH3
Na+ H+ H+ gln Na+

NHE3 ATPase
H+ 2 NH3
2 NH4+
α-KG glutamate
Glu- Gln
dehydrogenase
glutaminase
+ CA-2 CO 2
Physiology

A3Na H+
13

H2O
TP
ase Na+ nHCO3-
Cell & Molecular

Glut NBC1
2K+

Blood
 General Characteristics of Homeostatic
Control Systems
• Activities of cells, tissues, and organs must be regulated and
integrated with each other
• Any change in the extracellular fluid initiates a reaction to correct the
change.
• Compensating mechanisms that mediate such responses are
performed by homeostatic control systems
Homeostasis and Body Fluids
 Maintaining the volume and composition of body fluids are important
 Body fluids are defined as dilute, watery solutions containing dissolved

chemicals inside or outside of the cell

 Intracellular Fluid (ICF)

 Fluid within cells

 Extracellular Fluid (ECF)

 Fluid outside cells

 Interstitial fluid is ECF between cells and tissues
 blood plasma
• Transcellular fluid is that which is surrounded by epithelia.
• Gall bladder
• Stomach
• Intestines
• Urinary bladder
• Cerebrospinal fluid

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• Average adults weighing 70kg
• TBW makes up approx 60% (55% in females-why?) of body weight about
40L
• 3 liters plasma
• 12 liters IF
• 25liters ICF
meostastic Mechanism

(-) feedback diminish

(+) feedback enhance

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Blood Glucose Levels: 70-100 mg / dL blood-3.9-6.1mmol/l
Beneficial (-) Feedback

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Beneficial (+) Feedback Platelet Plug Formation

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 Blood Calcium
• Ca2+ ion is essential to organisms. It is functions include:
• A component of bone
• Neurotransmission and muscle contraction
• Fertilization
• As a cofactor in processes such as blood clotting
Calcium Homeostasis
When blood calcium levels are low, the hormone parathyroid hormone,
produced in the parathyroid glands, promotes
 absorption of calcium in the intestine
 conservation of calcium by the kidneys
 release of calcium from bone tissue
Calcium Homeostasis
When blood calcium levels are high, the hormone calcitonin,
produced in the thyroid gland, promotes
 elimination of calcium by the kidneys
 storage of calcium in bone tissue
• An example of positive feedback is pregnancy. The “parasite” gets bigger, so the uterus
expands to accommodate it. This growth continues until it reaches critical mass, then
the negative feedback mechanism kicks in…birth. When birthing, the more that
smooth muscle is stretched, the more calcium is pushed into the muscle cells, causing
contractions of greater force. When the head of the Parasite rams the cervix, the
hypothalamus is stimulated to release oxytocin, which makes contractions increase
more. Contractions increase in frequency and strength until negative feedback
(delivery) occurs.

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• Then another positive feedback kicks in…delivery of the afterbirth. When the placenta
separates from the uterus, the spiral arteries in the lining of the uterus are torn, causing a lot
of bleeding. This phase is very dangerous since excess bleeding can occur, so the nurses jump
on the woman and push against the uterus to reduce the amount of bleeding. The most
dangerous complication is disseminated intervascular coagulation (DIC). In this condition, all
of the clotting factors in the body are all used up in the effort to stop the bleeding, yet there
are even more torn vessels. Since there are not enough clotting factors left in the body, she
bleeds out. Clotting is a positive feedback mechanism. Luteinizing hormone is another
positive feedback mechanism.

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Harmful (+) Feedback
Hypovolemic Shock

1. Hemorrhage
2. Decreased venous return
3. Decreased cardiac output
4. Less blood to heart muscle, low BP
5. Increased vasoconstriction
6. More fluid loss at capillaries
7. Back to Number 2.
Can end in death
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Harmful (+) Feedback
Hypovolemic Shock

1. Hemorrhage
2. Decreased venous return
3. Decreased cardiac output
4. Less blood to heart muscle, low BP
5. Increased vasoconstriction
6. More fluid loss at capillaries
7. Back to Number 2.
Can end in death
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 Beneficial
• The oxytocin-mediated childbirth mechanism
• oxytocin-mediated sucking reflex
• The rising phase of the neuron action potential
• The countercurrent multiplier of the kidney
• Development of the Graafian follicle
• Gastrin-mediated protein digestion
• Mineralization of the bone matrix
• The parasympathetic micturition reflex
• Oxygen loading by hemoglobin
• Formation of a platelet plug
• Blood clotting
• Sexual intercourse
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 Detrimental
• Hyper- and hypothermia
• Myocardial infarction
• Disseminated intravascular coagulation
• Hypertensive renal failure
• Pathogenesis of atherosclerotic hypertension
• RBC sickling and hemolysis
• High fever
• Muscle cramping

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• Most of the corrective mechanisms in the body are
negative feedback.
• Which feedback mechanism is associated with the greatest
health?
• Which needs to be carefully controlled?

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• Please note for life to be sustained, the body must vigorously maintain
the volume and composition of the intracellular and extracellular
compartment
examples of what should be homeostatic ally controlled

• Fasting glucose 70-110mg/dl (P)(3.9-6.1 mmol/l)

• Osmolarity 280-296mOsm/L (S)(280-296mmol/kg
• Partial pressure of oxygen :whole blood 75-100mmHg (10.0-13.3kPa)
• pH whole blood arterial 7.35-7.45
• Potassium in serum 3.5-5.9mmol/l
• Sodium (s) 135-145mmol/l
• Insulin (S) 0-29 μU/ml (0-208pmol/L)
• Hematocrit (WB) female 37-48%, male 42-52%
• Hemoglobin female 12-16g/dl 7.4-9.9mmol/l
• male 13-18g/dl 8.1-11.2 mmol/l