Human Physiology

Physiology – Introduction
• Claude Bernard (1813 – 1878)
• The first to establish scientific methodology in
medicine
• Introduced experimental medicine and specifically
“blind studies” to ensure objectivity
• Introduced “Milieu interieur” which was the initial
concept of homeostasis
• “The constancy of the internal environment is the
condition for a free and independent life”
• Furthered in the next century by William Bradford Canon
Physiology – Introduction
• Walter Bradford Cannon (1871 – 1945)
• Chaired the Department of Physiology at
Harvard Medical School
• Coined the term “fight or flight”
• Did work with x-rays and different metals
to improve x-ray quality of bowels (today’s
barium meal is a direct result)
• Given credit for concept of homeostasis,
published it in 1932
 Physiology - Introduction
• Organization
• Homeostasis & Controls
• Communication
 Organizational Hierarchy in Biology

biosphere
Ecology
ecosystem
community

population
organisms

organ systems
Physiology
organs

Cell biology tissues

Molecular biology cells

molecules
Chemistry
atoms
Homeostasis
• The maintenance of physiological
parameters within the body/cell
• “homeo” = similar or like
• “stasis” = condition or state
• Provides a teleological answer to
questions
• Acts in a mechanistic way
• Components
• Process
• Types
Homeostasis
• Components
• Receptor
• Monitors the controlled condition
• Creates input signal
• Control center
• Processes input signal
• Makes decision
• Creates output signal
• Effector
• Returns controlled condition to normal state in one of two
ways

input signal output signal

receptor control effector
center
Homeostasis Functional unit in
Process: homeostasis

external internal
change change

change results in disruption

of homeostasis

compensation for change is

attempted (feedback processes)

compensation compensation
fails succeeds

illness/disease Wellness/health
Homeostasis

• Types of homeostasis maintenance pathways

• Negative Feedback Loop Mechanisms
• Common
• Reverse the change in the regulated variable back to normal
• May be local or long distance
• Require reflex pathways
• Positive Feedback Loop Mechanisms
• Rare
• Enhances the stressor in a cascading effect until stressor is
removed, causing regulated variable to return to normal
• Feedforward Controls
• Aid in homeostatic processes by “anticipating” events, rather
than waiting for them to happen and then responding
Homeostasis
• Negative Feedback Control Example: blood Ca2+
levels
regulated variable
blood levels of calcium
normal value 8.5 – 10.5
mg/dl
drop in blood rise in blood
levels of Ca2+ change levels of Ca2+
causes

PTH secretion is PTH secretion is

stimulated inhibited

Vit D Ca2+ release Ca2+ Vit D

Ca 2+
from bone uptake Ca 2+
synth
reabsorptio by bone secretion esis
synth
n in kidney by kidney
esis
blood Ca2+ levels normalize
Ca2+ uptake Ca2+ uptake
in GI tract in GI tract
Homeostasis
• Other Negative Feedback Examples?

Receptors in plasma Body temperature

membrane maintenance
Blood pressure
regulation
Blood glucose levels Ventilation rates

pH controls

Urine concentration/ Thyroid hormone

dilution levels
Cell cycle
GI motility &
secretion CO2 levels
Homeostasis
• positive feed back control example: childbirth
(parturition)
Regulated variable
female reproductive tract

Change

End of term fetus, uterus contracts,

increases pressure on the cervix

pressure causes release of

oxytocin

Oxytocin causes increased contraction of the uterus &

relaxation of cervix

Process continues until the cervix is dilated enough and the

uterus contractions expel the fetus
Homeostasis
• Other examples of positive feedback loops?

Lactation

Some enzyme production

Hemostasis (blood clotting)

Homeostasis

• Feedforward loops?
Communication
• Major theme in physiology
• Forms
• Electrical
• Chemical
• Between
• Cell/cells
• Tissues
• Organs…
• Communication allows for the
integration of physiology!
 Cell Physiology

• The “Inner Life of a Cell”

• Components and their functions
• Cell to Cell Junctions - Forming
Tissues
• How it’s Integrated
 Cell Components
• What are the basic components of a
cell?
• cell membrane

• nucleus

• cytoplasm

• cytosol
• organelles
 Cell Components The Cell Membrane

• What does the cell membrane do?

• Creates separation between ECF vs. ICF
• Creates fluid compartments
• Regulates ECF – ICF exchange
• Allows for communication
• Provides structural support for cell and
tissues
 Cell Components The Cell Membrane

• The physical barrier

• Formed by the tail to tail arrangement of
the phospholipid molecules
• Self assembles into
liposomes
bi-layer membranes

miceles
 Cell Components The Cell Membrane

• How does a barrier become a

regulator?
1. By being having a polar surface
2. By specialized membrane components
hydrophillic heads

hydrophobic tails

hydrophillic heads
 Cell Components The Cell Membrane

• Other phospholipid bilayer membrane

components
• cholesterol
• sphingolipids
• Membrane proteins Na+

• Glycoconjugates
ECF

ICF
 Cell Components The Cell Membrane

• Sphingolipids
• Group of membrane lipids with larger “heads”
• Involved in
• cell signal transduction by forming caveolae
• cell-cell communication
• Endocytosis & uptake of viruses and bacteria
• Form “lipid rafts” – more cholesterol
OH
sphingosine
CH2O R

NH
R groups –
fatty acid determine
O functionality
Cell Components The Cell Membrane

• Membrane Proteins
• 3 categories
• transmembrane proteins
• peripheral proteins
• lipid anchored (amphitropic) proteins
 Cell Components The Cell Membrane

• Transmembrane Proteins
• Types:
• Most common type in mammalian cells are
alpha helical proteins
• Also beta barrels in mitochondria

Single and polytopic alpha Beta barrel helical

helical membrane proteins membrane proteins
Cell Components The Cell Membrane

• Functions of transmembrane
proteins
• Transport function
• Enzyme function
• Gated Ion channel formation
• Receptor function/signal transduction
 Cell Components The Cell Membrane

• Peripheral Proteins –
• attachments to the phospholipid bi-
layer

interaction with interaction by a electrostatic or

interaction by covalently bound ionic
alpha helix in
a hydrophobic membrane lipid interactions
transmembrane
loop (forms many with membrane
protein (not shown)
sphingolipids) lipids
Cell Components The Cell Membrane
• Peripheral Protein Functions
• Enzyme function
• Mediate chemical reactions
• Structural
• Mediate attachment
• Transporters
• Between/among cell membrane proteins
• Electron carriers
• In electron transport chain
• Regulators
• Such as apoptosis