Chapter 5

Data Storage Technology

 Chapter 5
Data Storage Technology

Chapter Outline

Storage Device Characteristics

Primary Storage Devices
CPU Memory Access
Magnetic Storage
Optical Mass Storage Devices
 Chapter Goals
• Describe the distinguishing characteristics of
primary and secondary storage
• Describe the devices used to implement
primary storage
• Describe memory allocation schemes
• Compare and contrast secondary storage
technology alternatives
• Describe factors that determine storage
device performance
• Choose appropriate secondary storage
technologies and devices
Data Storage Technology
Storage Device Characteristics
Breakdown Of Topics

• Speed
• Volatility
• Access Methods
• Serial Access
• Random Access
• Parallel Access
• Portability
• Cost and Capacity
• Memory Storage Hierarchy
 Storage Devices
• Consist of a read/write mechanism and a storage
medium

– Device controller provides interface

• Primary storage devices

– Support immediate execution of programs

• Secondary storage devices

– Provide long-term storage of programs and data

Primary and Secondary
Storage Devices
 Characteristics
of Storage Devices
• Speed

• Volatility

• Access method

• Portability

• Cost and capacity

 Speed
• Primary Storage
– Typically much faster than secondary storage
– Expressed in nanoseconds
• billionths of a second = 10-6 second

• Secondary Storage
– Expressed in milliseconds
• thousandths of a second = 10-3 second

• Data Transfer Rate

= amount of data (bytes) / access time (seconds)
= answer in “bytes per second”
 Volatility
Primary storage devices are usually volatile.
(Cannot reliably hold data for long periods of time)

• Volatile memory requires constant power to

maintain the stored information.
• The most cost-effective primary storage
technologies are volatile.
• Non-volatile technologies have been widely used
for primary storage in the past and may again be
in the future.

Secondary storage devices are nonvolatile

(Holds data without loss over long periods of time)
 Access Method
• A single device can use multiple access
methods:
– Serial Access (Linear Access)
• Ex: magnetic tape
– Random Access (Direct Access)
• any storage location can be accessed
in the same amount of time
• well suited for primary storage and
disk storage
– Parallel Access
• Ex: RAM, multiple storage devices
 Portability
• Removable storage media with standardized
formats

– compact disc
– tape storage

• Typically results in slower access speeds

 Cost and Capacity
• Cost increases:

– With improved speed, volatility, or portability

– As access method moves from serial to
random to parallel access method

• Primary storage is expensive

– high speed and combination of parallel/random
access methods

• Capacity of secondary storage devices is greater

than primary storage devices
Storage Device Characteristics
and Their Relationship to Cost
Memory-
Storage
Hierarchy
Primary Storage Devices
Breakdown Of Topics

• Storing Electrical Signals

• Random Access Memory

• Nonvolatile Memory

• Memory Packaging
 Primary Storage Devices
• Critical performance characteristics

– Access speed
– Data transfer unit size

• Must closely match CPU speed and word size

to avoid wait states
 Storing Electrical Signals
• Directly
– by devices such as batteries and capacitors
– trade-off between access speed and volatility

• Indirectly
– write: use energy to alter the state of a
device
– read: an inverse process produces an
equivalent electrical signal

• Modern computers use memory implemented with

semiconductors (RAM and NVM)
 Random Access Memory
Characteristics

• Microchip implementation using semiconductors

• Ability to read and write with equal speed
• Random access to stored bytes, words, or larger
data units

Basic types
• Static RAM (SRAM) – uses transistors – access
time 1-5ns
• Dynamic RAM (DRAM) – uses transistors and
capacitors, slower than SRAM because of
refresh cycle) – access time 10-20ns
The Cross-Coupled Gate

Time X Y Z ~Z Time X Y Z ~Z
t 0 1 1 0 t 1 0 0 1
t+1 1 1 1 0 t+1 1 1 0 1
Random Access Memory
Bridging The Performance Gap
Between Memory And Microprocessors

• Read-ahead memory access

• Synchronous read operations

• On-chip memory caches

• SDRAM, DDR, DDR2, DDR3, DDR4

Core Memory
Core Memory
 Nonvolatile Memory
• Random access memory with long-term or
permanent data retention

• Usually relegated to specialized roles and

secondary storage; slower write speeds and
limited number of rewrites

• Generations of devices
– ROM
– EPROM
– EEPROM
– etc.
 Nonvolatile Memory
• Flash RAM (most common NVM)

– Competitive with DRAM in capacity and read

performance
– Relatively slow write speed
– Limited number of write cycles
– Based on EEPROM technology

• NVM technologies under development

– Ferroelectric RAM
– Polymer memory
 Memory Packaging
• Dual in-line packages (DIPs)

– Early RAM and ROM circuits

• Single in-line memory module (SIMM)

– Standard RAM package in late 1980s

• Double in-line memory module (DIMM)

– Newer packaging standard

– A SIMM with independent electrical contacts on
both sides of the module
Memory Packaging
Memory Packaging

SIMM memory module

DIMM memory module

SODIMM memory module

Memory Packaging
CPU Memory Access
Breakdown Of Topics

• Physical Memory Organization

• Memory Allocation and Addressing

 CPU Memory Access
• Critical design issues for primary storage
devices and processors

– Physical organization of memory

– Organization of programs and data within

memory

– Method(s) of referencing specific memory

locations
Physical Memory Organization
• Physical memory
– Actual number of memory bytes that
physically are installed in the machine

• Most and least significant bytes

• Big endian and little endian

• Addressable memory
– Highest numbered storage byte that can
be represented
A Linear Address Space
 Memory Allocation and
Addressing
• Memory allocation
– Assignment of specific memory addresses
to system software, application programs,
and data

• Absolute addressing

• Indirect addressing (relative addressing)

– Offset register
Memory Allocation
A Simple Scheme
 Memory Allocation
for Multiple Programs
Memory-
Storage
Hierarchy
 Magnetic Storage
• Exploits duality of magnetism and electricity

– Converts electrical signals into magnetic

charges

– Captures magnetic charge on a storage medium

– Later regenerates electrical current from

stored magnetic charge

• Polarity of magnetic charge represents bit values

zero and one
Principles of Magnetic Storage
Data Loss in Magnetic Storage
Areal Density
 Magnetic Tape
• Ribbon of plastic with a coercible (usually
metallic oxide) surface coating

• Mounts in a tape drive for reading and writing

• Relatively slow serial access

• Compounds magnetic leakage; wraps upon itself

• Susceptible to stretching, friction,

temperature variations
Cassette or Cartridge
Magnetic Tape
 Magnetic Tape
• Two approaches to recording data
– Linear recording
– Helical scanning

• Several formats and standards

– DDS [DAT]
– AIT
– Mammoth
– DLT
– LTO
– etc.
 Parallel Tracks
vs. Helical Scanning
 Technology Focus
Quarter Inch Committee (QIC)
Cartridge Recording
Format Capacity
Year Size Tracks Density
(GB)
(Inches) (bpi)
QIC-80 1988 4 x 6 .08 28 14,700

QIC-120 1991 4 x 6 0.125 15 10,000

QIC-525 1992 4 x 6 0.525 26 20,000

QIC-2100 1993 4 x 6 2.1 30 50,800

QIC-3095 1995 3.25 x 2.5 4 72 67,733

QIC-3220 1997 3.25 x 2.5 10 108 106,400

 Magnetic Disk
• Flat, circular platter with metallic coating
that is rotated beneath read/write heads

• Random access device; read/write head can

be moved to any location on the platter

• Hard disks and floppy disks

• Cost performance leader for general-purpose

on-line secondary storage
 Components of a
Magnetic Disk Drive
Track and Sector Organization
on a Disk Platter Surface
Magnetic Disk Access Time
• Head-to-head switching time

• Track-to-track seek time

• Rotational delay

• Most important performance numbers

– Average access time

– Sequential access time
– Sustained data transfer rate
 Hard Disk Drive
Performance Statistics

Average Access Time

is most strongly affected by
Rotational Speed
Track Zones
Optical Mass Storage Devices
• Store bit values as variations in light reflection

• Higher areal density and longer data life than

magnetic storage

• Standardized and relatively inexpensive

• Uses
– read-only storage with low performance
requirements
– applications requiring high capacity,
portability, and a standardized format
Optical Disc Read Operations

One Bit

Zero Bit
Optical and Magneto-optical
Storage Technology
 CD-ROM
• Read-only; data permanently embedded in
durable polycarbonate disc

• Bit values represented as flat areas (lands)

and concave dents (pits) in the reflective
layer

• Data recorded in single continuous track that

spirals outward from center of disc

• Popular medium for distributing software and

large data sets
 CD-ROM
Advantages Drawbacks
• Standardized format • Cannot be rewritten
• High density • Capacity limited to
• Cheap to 700 MB
manufacture
 CD-R
• Uses a laser that can be switched between
high and low power and a laser-sensitive dye
embedded in the disc

• Relatively cheap

• Common uses
– create music CDs on home computers
– back up data from other storage devices
– create archives of large data sets
– manufacture small quantities of identical
CDs
 Magneto-Optical
• Uses a laser and reflected light to sense bit
values

• Technology peaked in the mid 1990s

• Advantages over CD-RW

– faster access speed
– higher capacity
Phase-Change Optical Discs
• Enables nondestructive writing to optical
storage media

• Materials change state easily from non-

crystalline (amorphous), to crystalline, and
then back again

– Reflective layer is a compound of

tellurium, selenium, and tin

• Example: CD-RW
 DVD
• Improves on CD and CD-RW technology

– Increased track and bit density: smaller

wavelength lasers and more precise
mechanical control

– Improved error correction

– Multiple recording sites and layers

 Summary
• Storage devices and their underlying
technologies

• Characteristics common to all storage

devices

• Technology, strengths, and weaknesses of

primary and secondary storage
 Chapter Goals
• Describe the distinguishing characteristics of
primary and secondary storage
• Describe the devices used to implement
primary storage
• Describe memory allocation schemes
• Compare and contrast secondary storage
technology alternatives
• Describe factors that determine storage
device performance
• Choose appropriate secondary storage
technologies and devices