Lect#08 (Vectors and Raster

datasets)
Dr. Munawar Shah
 Geographic data models
Two common data models used to represent the geographic data are the vector
data model and the raster data model.
Vector data model
The vector data model is based on the assumption that the Earth's surface is
composed of discrete objects such as trees, rivers, lakes, etc. Objects are
represented as point, line, and polygon features with well-defined boundaries.
Feature boundaries are defined by x,y coordinate pairs, which reference a
location in the real world.
·   Points are defined by a single x,y coordinate pair
·   Lines are defined by two or more x,y coordinate pairs
·   Polygons are defined by lines that close to form the polygon boundaries
In the vector data model, every feature is assigned a unique numerical
identifier, which is stored with the feature record in an attribute table.
Vector model

The vector data model represents real-

world features as points, lines, and
polygons whose boundaries are defined
by x,y coordinate pairs.
Raster data model

• In the raster data model, the Earth is represented as a grid of equally sized cells. An
individual cell represents a portion of the Earth such as a square meter or a square mile.

• Unlike the vector data model, where x,y coordinates are used to define feature shapes
and locations, in the raster data model, only one x,y coordinate pair is normally present.
This x,y coordinate pair (called the origin) is used to define the location of every cell.
That is, each cell's location is defined in relation to the origin.

• Each raster cell is assigned a numeric value, which can represent any kind of information
about that geographic location—an elevation measurement in meters, for example, or a
code number that specifies a type of vegetation.
The raster data model
represents geographic data,
here elevation, as rows and
columns of equally sized
cells. One corner of the raster
must be defined by
an x,y coordinate pair.
 
Which data model should you use?

• Both the vector and raster data models are useful for representing geographic data, but one
may be more appropriate than the other when it comes to representing a particular type of
geographic data or answering different kinds of questions. In general, use the vector data
model when you want to represent features that have discrete boundaries. For example, a
building is well represented as a polygon feature with x,y coordinates recorded for its
corners.

• The raster data model can be used to represent discrete features as well. A building in the
raster data model, for example, would be represented as a group of connected cells with
the same value, the code value for building. Representing discrete features in the raster
data model requires less storage space than storing them in the vector data model, but is
less accurate.
The vector data model represents
geographic features with exactly defined
boundaries, while the raster data model
represents them as cells of the same value.
Notice that the shapes of the raster
building and road don't seem as similar to
the real-world shapes as the vector shapes.
 
The raster data model is very useful for
representing continuous geographic data;
that is, phenomena such as elevation,
precipitation, and temperature, which don't
have well-defined boundaries and which
usually change gradually across a given
area.
When used to represent continuous data,
each raster cell value is a measure of the
phenomenon being modeled. For example,
in an elevation raster, each cell value
represents the elevation of a particular
area. The raster data model is commonly
used for spatial analysis and modeling.
INTRODUCTION

• Remote sensing is the art and science of

recording, measuring, and analyzing information
about a phenomenon from a distance. Humans
with the aid of their eyes, noses, and ears are
constantly seeing, smelling, and hearing things
from a distance as they move through an
environment. Thus, humans are naturally
designed to be remote sensors. In order to study
large areas of the Earth’s surface geographers use
devices known as remote sensors. These sensors
are mounted on platforms such as helicopters,
planes, and satellites that make it possible for the
sensors to observe the Earth from above.
PASSIVE AND ACTIVE SENSOR
SYSTEMS
• Two types of sensors exist, namely passive
and active. A passive sensor system needs an
external energy source (Figure 1). In most
cases this source is the sun. These sensors
generally detect reflected and emitted energy
wave lengths from a phenomenon. An active
sensor system provides its own energy
source. As an example, a radar sensor sends
out sound waves and records the reflection
waves coming back from the surface.
Passive systems are much more common
than active systems.
 Most sensors record information about the Earth’s surface by measuring the transmission of
energy from the surface in different portions of the electromagnetic (EM) spectrum (Figure

Elements of RS 2). Because the Earth’s surface varies in nature, the transmitted energy also varies. This
variation in energy allows images of the surface to be created. Human eyes see this
variation in energy in the visible portion of the EM spectrum. Sensors detect variations in
energy in both the visible and non-visible areas of the spectrum.

Energy waves in certain sections of the EM spectrum easily pass through the atmosphere,
while other types do not. The ability of the atmosphere to allow energy to pass through it is
referred to as its transmissivity, and varies with the wavelength/type of the radiation. The
gases that comprise our atmosphere absorb energy in certain wavelengths while allowing
energy with differing wavelengths to pass through.
• The areas of the EM spectrum that are absorbed by atmospheric
gases such as water vapor, carbon dioxide, and ozone are known
as absorption bands. In Figure 3, absorption bands (shown in
brown) are represented by a low transmission value that is
associated with a specific range of wavelengths. Trying to obtain
remotely sensed imagery in the absorption bands is nearly
impossible; thus, sensors are generally designed not to record
information in these portions of the spectrum.

• In contrast to the absorption bands, there are areas of the EM

spectrum (shown in green in Figure 3 and described in Table 1)
where the atmosphere is transparent (little or no absorption of
energy) to specific wavelengths. These wavelength bands are
known as atmospheric "windows" since they allow the energy to
easily pass through the atmosphere to Earth's surface. It is in these
windows that sensors are used to gather information about Earth
phenomena.
Table 1: Major regions of the electromagnetic
spectrum.
Region Name Wavelength Comments
Gamma Ray <0.03 nanometers Entirely absorbed by the Earth's atmosphere and not available for remote sensing.

X-ray 0.03 to 30 nanometers Entirely absorbed by the Earth's atmosphere and not available for remote sensing.
Wavelengths from 0.03 to 0.3 micrometers absorbed by ozone in the Earth's
Ultraviolet 0.03 to 0.4 micrometers atmosphere.
Photographic Ultraviolet 0.3 to 0.4 micrometers Available for remote sensing the Earth. Can be imaged with cameras and sensors.

Visible 0.4 to 0.7 micrometers Available for remote sensing the Earth. Can be imaged with cameras and sensors.

Near and Mid Infrared 0.7 to 3.0 micrometers Available for remote sensing the Earth. Can be imaged with cameras and sensors.

Available for remote sensing the Earth. This wavelength cannot be captured by film
Thermal Infrared <0.7 to 3.0 micrometers
cameras. Sensors are used to image this wavelength band

Longer wavelengths of this band can pass through clouds, fog, and rain. Images using
Micowave or Radar 0.1 to 100 centimeters this band can be made with sensors that actively emit microwaves.

Radio >100 centimeters Not normally used for remote sensing the Earth.