Peappl Lecture Notes 01

POWER ELECTRONIC
Power Electronic Applications
APPLICATIONS
Prof. Dr. H. İbrahim OKUMUŞ
Karadeniz Technical University

Engineering Faculty
Department of Electrical and Electronics
Contents
 Introduction
 Switch Mode DC-DC Converters

 DC motor Drives
 Inverters
 AC Motor Drives
 AC-AC Phase Control Circuits
Integral Wave Control
Phase Control For Resistive Loads
Harmonics
Course Materials
Text book, Lecture notes, Power-Point Presentations
References
Power Electronics, Circuits, Devices, and Applications, by M. H. RASHID.

Nik Rumzi Nik Idris, Lecture Notes, Department of Energy Conversion, Universiti Teknologi
Malaysia Skudai, JOHOR
Power Electronics: Converters, Applications and Design by N. Mohan, T.M. Undeland and
W.P. Robbins, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 1995
Power Switching Converters by Simon S. Ang, Marcel Dekker, Inc., 1995
Power Electronics and AC Drives by B.K. Bose, Prentice Hall, 1986
Power Electronic Control of AC Motors by J.M.D. Murphy, F.G. Turnbull, Pergamon Press,
1989
Principles of electric machines and power electronics by P.C. Şen, John Wiley and Sons, 1997
Power electronics : devices, drivers, and applications by B.W Williams, Macmillan Education
Ltd. 1987
3
Web site for the course:
http://aves.ktu.edu.tr/okumus/
4
5
6
What is Power Electronics ?
A field of Electrical Engineering that deals with the application of

power semiconductor devices for the control and conversion of

electric power
sensors
Input Power Electronics
Load
Source Converters Output
- AC
- AC
- DC
- unregulated - DC POWER ELECTRONIC
CONVERTERS – the heart
of a power electronics
Reference Controller system

E-mail: okumus@ktu.edu.tr 7
Why Power Electronics ?
Other factors:
• Improvements in power semiconductors fabrication

• Power Integrated Module (PIM), Intelligent Power
Modules (IPM)
• Decline cost in power semiconductor
• Advancement in semiconductor fabrication

• ASICs • FPGA • DSPs
• Faster and cheaper to implement complex
algorithm

E-mail: okumus@ktu.edu.tr 8
Some Applications of Power Electronics :
Typically used in systems requiring efficient control and conversion of
electric energy:
Domestic and Commercial Applications
Industrial Applications
Telecommunications
Transportation
Generation, Transmission and Distribution of electrical energy
Power rating of < 1 W (portable equipment)
Tens or hundreds Watts (Power supplies for computers /office equipment)
kW to MW : drives
Hundreds of MW in DC transmission system (HVDC)
E-mail: okumus@ktu.edu.tr
9
DC to DC CONVERTER
(CHOPPER)
• General
• Buck converter
• Boost converter
• Buck-Boost converter
• Switched-mode power supply
• Bridge converter
• Notes on electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) and solutions.
10
DEFINITION: Converting the unregulated DC input to a controlled DC output
with a desired voltage level.
11
12
13
Switching Regulator
14
Buck (step-down) converter
Switch is turned on (closed)
15
16
Switch turned off (opened)
17
Analysis
18
Steady-state operation
Average, Maximum and Minimum Inductor
Current
19
Continuous Current Mode (CCM)
20
Ou
tp
ut
21
vo
lt a
ge
rip
pl
e
22
Basic design procedures
Examples
• A buck converter is supplied from a 50V battery source. Given L=400uH,

C=100uF, R=20 Ohm, f=20KHz and D=0.4. Calculate: (a) output voltage (b)
maximum and minimum inductor current, (c) output voltage ripple.
• A buck converter has an input voltage of 50V and output of 25V. The
switching frequency is 10KHz. The power output is 125W. (a) Determine the
duty cycle, (b) value of L to limit the peak inductor current to 6.25A, (c) value of
capacitance to limit the output voltage ripple factor to 0.5%.
• Design a buck converter such that the output voltage is 28V when the input is
48V. The load is 8Ohm. Design the converter such that it will be in continuous
current mode. The output voltage ripple must not be more than 0.5%. Specify
the frequency and the values of each component. Suggest the power switch
also.
23
24
Boost (step-up) converter
Boost analysis:switch closed
25
Sw
itc
h
26
op
en
e d
n
io
at
er
op
• Boost converter produces output voltage

te
ta
that is greater or equal to the input

-s
dy
voltage.
ea
St
• Alternative explanation:
– when switch is closed, diode is reversed.
Thus output is isolated. The input supplies
energy to inductor.
– When switch is opened, the output
stage receives energy from the input as
well as from the inductor. Hence output is
large.
– Output voltage is maintained constant
by virtue of large C.
27
Average, Maximum, Minimum
Inductor Current
28
La
nd
29
Cv
a lu
es
Examples
• The boost converter has the following parameters: Vd=20V, D=0.6,

R=12.5ohm, L=65uH, C=200uF, fs=40KHz. Determine (a) output voltage, (b)
average, maximum and minimum
inductor current, (c) output voltage ripple.
• Design a boost converter to provide an output voltage of 36V from a 24V
source. The load is 50W. The voltage ripple factor must be less than 0.5%.
Specify the duty cycle ratio, switching frequency, inductor and capacitor size,
and power device.
30
31
Buck-Boost converter
Bu
ck
32
-b
o ost
an
al
y sis
Ou
tp
u
33
tv
o lt age
34
Average inductor current
L a nd
35
C
v alue s
36
Converters in CCM: Summary
Control of DC-DC converter:
pulse width modulation
(PWM)
37
Isolated DC-DC Converter
• Isolated DC-DC requires isolation transformer

• Two types: Linear and Switched-mode
• Advantages of switched mode over linear power supply

-Efficient (70-95%)
-Weight and size reduction
• Disadvantages
-Complex design
-EMI problems • However above certain ratings,
SMPS is the only feasible choice
• Types of SMPS
-Flyback
-forward
-Push-pull
-Bridge (half and full)
38
Linear and SMPS block diagram
39
40
High frequency transformer
41
Flyback Converter
42
Operation: switch closed
43
Switch opened
Ou
tput
44
v
olt
a ge
Fly
ab
c
45
kw
a v
e for
m
s
Ma
x ,M
46
in
ind
uc
to
rc
ur
re
nt
47
48
Full-bridge converter
Full bridge: basic operation
49
DC MOTOR DRIVES
Contents
• Introduction
– Trends in DC drives
– Principles of DC motor drives
• Modeling of Converters and DC motor

– Phase-controlled Rectifier
– DC-DC converter (Switch-mode)
– Modeling of DC motor
• Closed-loop speed control
– Cascade Control Structure
– Closed-loop speed control - an example
• Torque loop
• Speed loop
• Summary
INTRODUCTION
• DC DRIVES: Electric drives that use DC motors as the prime movers
• DC motor: industry workhorse for decades
• Dominates variable speed applications before PE converters were

introduced
• Will AC drive replaces DC drive ?
– Predicted 30 years ago

– DC strong presence – easy control – huge numbers
– AC will eventually replace DC – at a slow rate
Introduction
DC Motors
• Advantage: Precise torque and speed control without

sophisticated electronics
• Several limitations:
• Regular Maintenance • Expensive
• Heavy • Speed limitations
• Sparking
Introduction
Ra La Lf Rf
ia +
+ if +
Vt ea Vf
_ _ _
di a di
v t  R a ia  L  ea v f  R f if  L f
dt dt
Te  k t i a Electric torque
e a  k E  Armature back e.m.f.

Introduction
Armature circuit:
di a
Vt  R a i a  L  ea
dt
In steady state,
Vt  R a Ia  E a
Therefore steady state speed is given by,
Vt R T
  a e2
k T  k T 
Three possible methods of speed control:
Field flux
Armature voltage Vt
Armature resistance Ra
Introduction Vt R T
  a e2
k T  k T 
Varying Vt

Vt
kT TL
Vt ↓
Te
Requires variable DC supply
Introduction Vt R T
  a e2
k T  k T 
Varying Vt

Vt
kT TL
Vt ↓
Te
Introduction R a Te
Vt  (k T ) 
k T 
Varying Vt

TL Constant TL
Te
Introduction R a Te
Vt  (k T ) 
k T 
Vt  (k T )  Ia R a Varying Vt
Vt
Vt,rated Constant TL
Ia R a
base 
Introduction Vt R T
  a e2
k T  k T 
Varying Ra

Vt TL
kT
Ra ↑
Te
Simple control
Losses in external resistor
Introduction Vt R T
  a e2
k T  k T 

Varying 
Vt TL
kT
↓
Te
Not possible for PM motor
Maximum torque capability reduces
Introduction
Armature voltage control : retain maximum torque capability
Field flux control (i.e. flux reduced) : reduce maximum torque capability
For wide range of speed control
0 to base  armature voltage, above base  field flux reduction
Armature voltage control

Field flux control
Te
Maximum
Torque capability
base 
Introduction
Te
Maximum
Torque capability
base 
Introduction
P Te Constant torque Constant power

Pmax
base 
0 to base  armature voltage, above base  field flux reduction
P = EaIa,max = kaIa,max Pmax = EaIa,max = kabaseIa,max

   1/
MODELING OF CONVERTERS AND DC
MOTOR
POWER ELECTRONICS CONVERTERS
Used to obtain variable armature voltage
• Efficient
Ideal : lossless
• Phase-controlled rectifiers (AC  DC)
• DC-DC switch-mode converters(DC  DC)

Modeling of Converters and DC motor
Phase-controlled rectifier (AC–DC)
ia

+
3-phase Q1
supply Vt Q2
Q3 Q4 T

Phase-controlled rectifier
+
3-phase
supply 3-phase
Vt supply
Q2 Q1
Q3 Q4 T
Phase-controlled rectifier
R1
F1
3-phase
supply
+ Va -
R2 F2
Q2 Q1
Q3 Q4 T
Phase-controlled rectifier (continuous current)

• Firing circuit –firing angle control
 Establish relation between vc and Vt
iref + current vc firing  controlled Vt

- controller circuit rectifier
–

• Firing angle control linear firing angle control
vt v vc
 c  180
180  vt
2Vm v 
Va  cos c 180 
  vt 
Cosine-wave crossing control
v c  v s cos 
2Vm v c
Va 
 vs

•Steady state: linear gain amplifier
•Cosine wave–crossing method

•Transient: sampler with zero order hold
converter
T
GH(s)
T – 10 ms for 1-phase 50 Hz system

– 3.33 ms for 3-phase 50 Hz system
400
200
0
Output
-200 voltage
-400
0.3 0.31 0.32 0.33 0.34 0.35 0.36
Control
Td signal
10
5
Cosine-wave
0 crossing
-5
-10
0.3 0.31 0.32 0.33 0.34 0.35 0.36
Td – Delay in average output voltage generation

0 – 10 ms for 50 Hz single phase system

• Model simplified to linear gain if bandwidth (e.g.

current loop) much lower than sampling
frequency
 Low bandwidth – limited applications
• Low frequency voltage ripple  high current

ripple  undesirable
Switch–mode converters

T1
+ Q2 Q1
Vt Q3 Q4 T
-
T1 Q1
Q2
D1
Q3 Q4 T
+
T2 Vt
D2 - Q1  T1 and D2
Q2  D1 and T2
D1 D3 Q2 Q1
T1 T3
+ Vt -
Q3 Q4 T
T4 D2 T2
D4
• Switching at high frequency

 Reduces current ripple
 Increases control bandwidth
• Suitable for high performance applications

Switch–mode converters - modeling
+
Vdc
Vdc
vtri
q
vc
1 when vc > vtri, upper switch ON
q
0 when vc < vtri, lower switch ON
Switch–mode converters – averaged model

Ttri
vc
1 t  Ttri t on

d
d qdt 
Ttri t Ttri
1 dTtri
Vdc
Vt Vt 
Ttri  0
Vdc dt  dVdc
Switch–mode converters – averaged model

d
1
0.5
0
vc
-Vtri,p Vtri,p
vc
d  0.5 
2Vtri,p
Vdc
Vt  0.5Vdc  vc
2Vtri,p
Switch–mode converters – small signal model

Vdc
Vt ( s)  v c ( s) 2-quadrant converter
2Vtri,p
Vdc
Vt ( s)  v c ( s) 4-quadrant converter
Vtri,p
DC motor – separately excited or permanent magnet
di a d m
v t  ia R a  L a  ea Te  Tl  J
dt dt
T e = k t ia ee = kt 
Extract the dc and ac components by introducing small perturbations
in Vt, ia, ea, Te, TL and m
ac components dc components
~
~ ~ d ia ~ Vt  Ia R a  E a
v t  ia R a  L a  ea
dt
~ ~
Te  k E ( ia ) Te  k E I a
~ ~)
e e  k E ( Ee  k E
~ ~ ~)
d(
~
Te  TL  B  J Te  TL  B()
dt
DC motor – small signal model

Perform Laplace Transformation on ac components

~
~ d i
v t  ia R a  L a a  ~
~ ea Vt(s) = Ia(s)Ra + LasIa + Ea(s)
dt
~ ~ Te(s) = kEIa(s)
Te  k E ( ia )
~ ~)
e e  k E ( Ea(s) = kE(s)
~
~ ~ ~  J d()
Te  TL  B
dt
Te(s) = TL(s) + B(s) + sJ(s)
DC motor – small signal model

Tl (s )
Ia (s ) -
Va (s ) 1 Te (s ) 1 (s )
kT
+ Ra  sL a + B  sJ
-
kE
CLOSED-LOOP SPEED CONTROL
Cascade control structure
position speed torque
controller controller controller converter
* + * + T* +
Motor
- - -
tacho
kT
1/s
• The control variable of inner loop (e.g. torque) can be limited by

limiting its reference value
• It is flexible – outer loop can be readily added or removed
depending on the control requirements
Design procedure in cascade control structure

• Inner loop (current or torque loop) the fastest – largest

bandwidth
• The outer most loop (position loop) the slowest –
smallest bandwidth
• Design starts from torque loop proceed towards outer

loops
Closed-loop speed control – an example

OBJECTIVES:
• Fast response – large bandwidth
• Minimum overshoot
good phase margin (>65o) BODE PLOTS
• Zero steady state error – very large DC gain
METHOD
• Obtain linear small signal model
• Design controllers based on linear small signal model
• Perform large signal simulation for controllers verification

Closed-loop speed control – an example

Permanent magnet motor’s parameters
Ra = 2  La = 5.2 mH
B = 1 x10–4 kg.m2/sec J = 152 x 10–6 kg.m2
ke = 0.1 V/(rad/s) kt = 0.1 Nm/A
Vd = 60 V Vtri = 5 V
fs = 33 kHz
• PI controllers • Switching signals from comparison of

vc and triangular waveform
Torque controller design q
vtri
Torque
controller +
Tc +
Vdc
–
−
q kt
DC motor
Tl (s )
Converter
Te (s ) Torque Vdc Va (s ) 1 Ia (s ) Te (s ) -
1 (s )
kT
+ controller + R a  sL a + B  sJ
Vtri,peak
- -
kE
Torque controller design

Open-loop gain Bode Diagram
From: Input Point To: Output Point
150
100 kpT= 90
Magnitude (dB)
compensated
50
kiT= 18000
0
-50
90
45
Phase (deg)
-45
compensated
-90
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
Frequency (rad/sec)
Speed controller design

Assume torque loop unity gain for speed bandwidth << Torque bandwidth
* + Speed T* T
1 1 
controller B  sJ
–
Torque loop
Speed controller
Open-loop gain Bode Diagram
From: Input Point To: Output Point
150
100
kps= 0.2
Magnitude (dB)
50
compensated
kis= 0.14
0
-50
0
-45
Phase (deg)
-90
-135
compensated
-180
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
10 10 10 10 10 10 10
Frequency (Hz)
Large Signal Simulation results

40
20
Speed 0
-20
-40
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45
Torque 0
-1
-2
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45
CLOSED-LOOP SPEED CONTROL – DESIGN EXAMPLE
SUMMARY
Speed control by: armature voltage (0 b) and field flux (b)
Power electronics converters – to obtain variable armature voltage

Phase controlled rectifier – small bandwidth – large ripple
Switch-mode DC-DC converter – large bandwidth – small ripple
Controller design based on linear small signal model

Power converters - averaged model
DC motor – separately excited or permanent magnet
Closed-loop speed control design based on Bode plots

Verify with large signal simulation
220
220
540,42’
DC to AC Conversion
(INVERTER)
• General concept
• Single-phase inverter
• Harmonics
• Modulation
• Three-phase inverter
129
DC to AC Converter (Inverter)
• DEFINITION: Converts DC to AC power by switching the DC input voltage (or
current) in a pre-determined sequence so as to generate AC
voltage (or current) output.
• TYPICAL APPLICATIONS:
– Un-interruptible power supply (UPS), Industrial (induction motor) drives,
Traction, HVDC
130
Simple square-wave inverter (1)
• To illustrate the concept of AC waveform generation
131
AC Waveform Generation
132
AC
W
ave
for
m
s
133
Harmonics Filtering
• Output of the inverter is “chopped AC
voltage with zero DC component”. It

contain harmonics.
• An LC section low-pass filter is
normally fitted at the inverter output to
reduce the high frequency harmonics.
• In some applications such as UPS, “high
purity” sine wave output is required. Good
filtering is a must.
• In some applications such as AC motor
drive, filtering is not required.
134
Variable Voltage Variable Frequency Capability
• Output voltage frequency can be varied by

“period” of the square-wave pulse.
• Output voltage amplitude can be varied by
varying the “magnitude” of the DC input
voltage.
• Very useful: e.g. variable speed induction
motor
drive
135
Output voltage harmonics/distortion
• Harmonics cause distortion on the output voltage.

• Lower order harmonics (3rd, 5th etc) are very difficult to filter, due to the filter
size and high filter order. They can cause serious voltage distortion.
• Why need to consider harmonics?
– Sinusoidal waveform quality must match TNB supply.
– “Power Quality” issue.
– Harmonics may cause degradation of equipment. Equipment need to be “de-
rated”.
• Total Harmonic Distortion (THD) is a measure to determine the “quality” of a
given waveform.
136
Total Harmonics Distortion (THD)
137
Fourier Series
• Study of harmonics requires
understanding of wave shapes.
Fourier Series is a tool to

analyse wave shapes.
138
Harmonics of square-wave (1)
139
Harmonics of square wave (2)
140
• Spectra (harmonics) characteristics:

– Harmonic decreases with a factor of (1/n).
– Even harmonics are absent
– Nearest harmonics is the 3rd. If fundamental is
50Hz, then nearest harmonic is 150Hz.
– Due to the small separation between the
fundamental an harmonics, output low-pass
filter design can be very difficult.
141
Quasi-square wave (QSW)
142
Harmonics control
143
144
Half-bridge inverter (1)
• Also known as the “inverter leg”.
• Basic building block for full bridge,
three phase and higher order

inverters.
• G is the “centre point”.
• Both capacitors have the same
value. Thus the DC link is equally
“spilt” into two.
• The top and bottom switch has to be
“complementary”, i.e. If the top switch
is closed (on), the bottom must be off,
and vice-versa.
145
Shoot through fault and “Dead-time”
• In practical, a dead time as shown

below is required to avoid “shoot-
through” faults, i.e. short circuit across
the DC rail.
• Dead time creates “low frequency
envelope”. Low frequency harmonics
emerged.
• This is the main source of distortion for
high-quality sine wave inverter.
146
Single-phase, full-bridge (1)
• Full bridge (single phase) is built from two halfbridge leg.
• The switching in the second leg is “delayed by 180 degrees” from the first
leg.
147
Three-phase inverter
• Each leg (Red, Yellow, Blue) is delayed by 120 degrees.
• A three-phase inverter with star connected load is shown below
148
Three phase inverter waveforms
149
Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)
• Triangulation method (Natural sampling)

– Amplitudes of the triangular wave

(carrier) and sine wave (modulating) are
compared to obtain PWM waveform.
Simple analogue comparator can be used.
– Basically an analogue method. Its digital
version, known as REGULAR sampling is
widely used in industry.
150
PWM types
• Natural (sinusoidal) sampling (as shown on previous slide)
– Problems with analogue circuitry, e.g. Drift, sensitivity etc.
• Regular sampling
– simplified version of natural sampling that results in
simple digital implementation
• Optimised PWM
– PWM waveform are constructed based on
certain performance criteria, e.g. THD.
• Harmonic elimination/minimisation PWM
– PWM waveforms are constructed to eliminate some undesirable harmonics from
the output waveform spectra.
– Highly mathematical in nature
151
Pulse Width Modulation Techniques
for Voltage-Fed Inverters
I. Voltage Source Inverter (VSI)

A. Six-Step VSI
B. Pulse-Width Modulated VSI
II. PWM Methods

A. Sine PWM
B. Hysteresis (Bang-bang)
C. Space Vector PWM
152
A. Six-Step VSI (1)
 Six-Step three-phase Voltage Source Inverter
Three-phase voltage source inverter.
153
A. Six-Step VSI (2)
 Gating signals, switching sequence and line to negative voltages
Waveforms of gating signals, switching sequence, line to negative voltages

for six-step voltage source inverter.
154
A. Six-Step VSI (3)
 Switching Sequence:
561 (V1)  612 (V2)  123 (V3)  234 (V4)  345 (V5)  456 (V6)  561 (V1)
Six inverter voltage vectors for six-step voltage source inverter.
155
A. Six-Step VSI (4)
 Line to line voltages (Vab, Vbc, Vca) and line to neutral voltages (Van, Vbn, Vcn)
 Line to line voltages
 Vab = VaN - VbN
 Vbc = VbN - VcN
 Vca = VcN - VaN
 Phase voltages
 Van = 2/3VaN - 1/3VbN - 1/3VcN
 Vbn = -1/3VaN + 2/3VbN - 1/3VcN
 Vcn = -1/3VaN - 1/3VbN + 2/3VcN
Waveforms of line to neutral (phase) voltages and line to line voltages

for six-step voltage source inverter.
156
A. Six-Step VSI (5)
 Amplitude of line to line voltages (Vab, Vbc, Vca)
 Fundamental Frequency Component (Vab)1
3 4 Vdc 6
(Vab )1 (rms)   Vdc  0.78Vdc
2  2 
 Harmonic Frequency Components (Vab)h : amplitudes of harmonics decrease

inversely proportional to their harmonic order
0.78
(Vab )h (rms)  Vdc
h
where, h  6n  1 (n  1, 2, 3,.....)
157
A. Six-Step VSI (6)
 Characteristics of Six-step VSI
 It is called “six-step inverter” because of the presence of six “steps”

in the line to neutral (phase) voltage waveform
 Harmonics of order three and multiples of three are absent from

both the line to line and the line to neutral voltages
and consequently absent from the currents
 Output amplitude in a three-phase inverter can be controlled
by only change of DC-link voltage (V dc)
158
B. Pulse-Width Modulated VSI (1)
 Objective of PWM
 Control of inverter output voltage
 Reduction of harmonics
 Disadvantages of PWM
 Increase of switching losses due to high PWM frequency
 Reduction of available voltage
 EMI problems due to high-order harmonics
159
 Pulse-Width Modulation (PWM)
Pulse-width modulation.
160
 Inverter output voltage
 When vcontrol > vtri, VA0 = Vdc/2
 When vcontrol < vtri, VA0 = -Vdc/2
 Control of inverter output voltage
 PWM frequency is the same as the frequency of v tri
 Amplitude is controlled by the peak value of v control
 Fundamental frequency is controlled by the frequency of v control

 Modulation Index (m)
vcontrol peak of (V A0 )1
m   ,
vtri Vdc / 2
where, (VA0 )1 : fundamental frequecny component of VA0
161
II. PWM METHODS

A. Sine PWM (1)
ELECTRİC DRİVE SYSTEMS AND MATLAB
 Three-phase inverter
APPLICATIONS
Three-phase Sine PWM inverter.
Prof. Dr. H. İbrahim OKUMUŞ 162

E-mail : okumus@ktu.edu.tr
II. PWM METHODS

A. Sine PWM (2)
 Three-phase sine PWM waveforms
vtri vcont_A vcont_B vcont_C

 Frequency of vtri and vcontrol
 Frequency of vtri = fs
V A0
 Frequency of vcontrol = f1
APPLICATIONS
VB0
where, fs = PWM frequency
f1 = Fundamental frequency
VC0
 Inverter output voltage
V AB
 When vcontrol > vtri, VA0 = Vdc/2
 When vcontrol < vtri, VA0 = -Vdc/2 VBC

V CA
where, VAB = VA0 – VB0

t
VBC = VB0 – VC0

VCA = VC0 – VA0 Waveforms of three-phase sine PWM inverter.
Prof. Dr. H. İbrahim OKUMUŞ E-mail : okumus@ktu.edu.tr 163

II. PWM METHODS

A. Sine PWM (3)
 Amplitude modulation ratio (ma)

peak amplitude of vcontrol peak value of (VA0 )1
 ma   ,
amplitude of vtri Vdc / 2
APPLICATIONS
where, (VA0 )1 : fundamental frequecny component of VA0
 Frequency modulation ratio (mf)

fs
mf  , where, fs  PWM frequency and f1  fundamental frequency
f1
 mf should be an odd integer

 if mf is not an integer, there may exist sunhamonics at output voltage
 if mf is not odd, DC component may exist and even harmonics are present at output voltage
 mf should be a multiple of 3 for three-phase PWM inverter
 An odd multiple of 3 and even harmonics are suppressed

II. PWM METHODS

B. Hysteresis (Bang-bang) PWM (1)
 Three-phase inverter for hysteresis Current Control

APPLICATIONS
Three-phase inverter for hysteresis current control.

II. PWM METHODS
 Hysteresis Current Controller
Hysteresis current controller at Phase “a”.
166
II. PWM METHODS
 Characteristics of hysteresis Current Control
 Advantages
 Excellent dynamic response
 Low cost and easy implementation
 Drawbacks
 Large current ripple in steady-state
 Variation of switching frequency
 No intercommunication between each hysterisis controller of three phases

and hence no strategy to generate zero-voltage vectors.
As a result, the switching frequency increases at lower modulation index and
the signal will leave the hysteresis band whenever the zero vector is turned on.
 The modulation process generates subharmonic components
167
II. PWM METHODS
C. Space Vector PWM (1)
 Output voltages of three-phase inverter (1)
Three-phase power inverter.
where, upper transistors: S1, S3, S5

lower transistors: S4, S6, S2
switching variable vector: a, b, c
168
II. PWM METHODS
 S1 through S6 are the six power transistors that shape the ouput voltage
 When an upper switch is turned on (i.e., a, b or c is “1”), the corresponding lower
switch is turned off (i.e., a', b' or c' is “0”)
 Eight possible combinations of on and off patterns for the three upper transistors (S 1, S3, S5)
 Line to line voltage vector [Vab Vbc Vca]t
Vab  1  1 0 a 
    
Vbc   Vdc 0 1  1 b  , where switching variable vector [a b c]t
Vca   1 0 1 c 
 Line to neutral (phase) voltage vector [Van Vbn Vcn]t
Van  2  1  1 a 
  1   
V
  3
bn  Vdc   1 2  1 b 
Vcn   1  1 2 c 
169
II. PWM METHODS
 The eight inverter voltage vectors (V0 to V7)
170
II. PWM METHODS
 The eight combinations, phase voltages and output line to line voltages
171
II. PWM METHODS
 Principle of Space Vector PWM
 Treats the sinusoidal voltage as a constant amplitude vector rotating

at constant frequency
 This PWM technique approximates the reference voltage V ref by a combination

of the eight switching patterns (V0 to V7)
 Coordinate Transformation (abc reference frame to the stationary d-q frame)

: A three-phase voltage vector is transformed into a vector in the stationary d-q
coordinate
frame which represents
The vectors the spatial
(V1 to V6) divide vectorinto
the plane sumsix
of the three-phase
sectors voltage 60 degrees)
(each sector:
 Vref is generated by two adjacent non-zero vectors and two zero vectors
172
II. PWM METHODS

 Basic switching vectors and Sectors
 6 active vectors (V1,V2, V3, V4, V5, V6)

APPLICATIONS
 Axes of a hexagonal
 DC link voltage is supplied to the load
 Each sector (1 to 6): 60 degrees
 2 zero vectors (V0, V7)
 At origin
 No voltage is supplied to the load
Basic switching vectors and sectors.

II. PWM METHODS
 Comparison of Sine PWM and Space Vector PWM (1)
Locus comparison of maximum linear control voltage

in Sine PWM and SV PWM.
174
II. PWM METHODS
 Comparison of Sine PWM and Space Vector PWM (2)

 Space Vector PWM generates less harmonic distortion
in the output voltage or currents in comparison with sine PWM
 Space Vector PWM provides more efficient use of supply voltage

in comparison with sine PWM
 Sine PWM
: Locus of the reference vector is the inside of a circle with radius of 1/2 V dc
 Space Vector PWM

: Locus of the reference vector is the inside of a circle with radius of 1/3 Vdc
 Voltage Utilization: Space Vector PWM = 2/3 times of Sine PWM
175
II. PWM METHODS
 Realization of Space Vector PWM
 Step 1. Determine Vd, Vq, Vref, and angle ()
 Step 2. Determine time duration T1, T2, T0
 Step 3. Determine the switching time of each transistor (S 1 to S6)
176
II. PWM METHODS
 Step 1. Determine Vd, Vq, Vref, and angle ()
Vd  Van  Vbn  cos60  Vcn  cos60

1 1
 Coordinate transformation  Van  Vbn  Vcn
2 2
: abc to dq
Vq  0  Vbn  cos30  Vcn  cos30
3 3
 Van  Vbn  Vcn
2 2
 1 1 
1   Van 
Vd  2 2 2   
   Vbn 
Vq  3 3 3 
0   Vcn 
 2 2 
V ref  Vd 2  Vq 2
Vq
α  tan 1 ( )  ωs t  2ππs t
Vd
(where, f s  fundamental frequency)
Voltage Space Vector and its components in (d, q).
177
II. PWM METHODS
 Step 2. Determine time duration T1, T2, T0 (1)
Reference vector as a combination of adjacent vectors at sector 1.
178
II. PWM METHODS

 Switching time duration at Sector 1
Tz T1 T1  T2 Tz
sin ( / 3   )
 V   V dt   V dt   V
0
ref
0
1
T1
2
T1  T2
0
 T1  Tz  a 
sin ( / 3)
sin ( )
 T2  Tz  a 
 Tz  V ref  (T1  V1  T2  V 2 ) sin ( / 3)
cos (α ) 2 1  2 cos (π / 3)  
 Tz  V ref    T   V   T   V   1 V ref 
 1 dc   2 dc    T0  Tz  (T1  T2 ),  where, Tz  and a  
sin (α )  3 0  3 sin (π / 3)   2

fs Vdc 
(where, 0  α  60)  3 
179
II. PWM METHODS
 Switching time duration at any Sector
3  Tz  V ref   n 1 
 T1   sin       
Vdc  3 3 
3  Tz  V ref  n 
  sin    
Vdc  3 
3  Tz  V ref  n n 
  sin  cos   cos  sin  
Vdc  3 3 
3  Tz  V ref   n 1 
 T2   sin     
Vdc   3 
3  Tz V ref  n 1 n 1 
   cos   sin   sin   cos 
Vdc  3 3 
 where, n  1 through 6 (that is, Sector1 to 6) 

 T0  Tz  T1  T2 ,  
 0  α  60 
180
II. PWM METHODS
 Step 3. Determine the switching time of each transistor (S1 to S6) (1)
(a) Sector 1. (b) Sector 2.

Space Vector PWM switching patterns at each sector.
181
II. PWM METHODS
(c) Sector 3. (d) Sector 4.
182
II. PWM METHODS
(e) Sector 5. (f) Sector 6.

183
II. PWM METHODS
Table 1. Switching Time Table at Each Sector
184
III. REFERENCES
[1] N. Mohan, W. P. Robbin, and T. Undeland, Power Electronics: Converters,
Applications, and Design, 2nd ed. New York: Wiley, 1995.
[2] B. K. Bose, Power Electronics and Variable Frequency Drives:Technology

and Applications. IEEE Press, 1997.
[3] H.W. van der Broeck, H.-C. Skudelny, and G.V. Stanke, “Analysis and
realization of a pulsewidth modulator based on voltage space vectors,”
IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications, vol.24, pp. 142-150, 1988.
185
• Space-vector modulation (SVM)

– A simple technique based on volt-second that is normally
used with three-phase inverter motordrive
186
Modulation Index, Ratio
187
Modulation Index, Ratio
188
Regular sampling
189
ELECTRIC DRIVES
INDUCTION MOTOR
Scalar Control
(squirrel cage)
Scalar control of induction machine:
Control of induction machine based on steady-state

model (per phase SS equivalent circuit):

Is Lls Llr’ Ir’
Rs
+
+
Lm Rr’/s
Vs
Eag
–
Im –
Scalar control of induction machine
Te
Pull out
Torque Intersection point

(Tmax) Te (Te=TL) determines the
steady –state speed
TL
Trated
r
sm  
s rated rotor s
Scalar control of induction machine
Given a load T– characteristic, the steady-state speed

can be changed by altering the T– of the motor:
Pole changing Variable voltage (amplitude),

Synchronous speed change with variable frequency
no. of poles Using power electronics converter
Discrete step change in speed Operated at low slip frequency
Variable voltage (amplitude),

frequency fixed
E.g. using transformer or triac
Slip becomes high as voltage
reduced – low efficiency
Variable voltage, fixed frequency
600
e.g. 3–phase squirrel cage IM
V = 460 V Rs= 0.25 

500
Rr=0.2  Lr = Ls = 0.5/(2*pi*50)
400 Lm=30/(2*pi*50)
f = 50Hz p=4
Torque
300
200
Lower speed  slip higher
100
Low efficiency at low speed
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
w (rad/s)
Variable voltage, variable frequency
Constant V/f
Approximates constant air-gap flux when Eag is large
Eag = k f ag
E ag V
ag = constant  
f f
Speed is adjusted by varying f - maintaining V/f constant to avoid flux
saturation
Constant V/f - assuming constant airgap flux
900
800
50Hz
700
30Hz
600
500
Torque
10Hz
400
300
200
100
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
Constant V/f
Vs
Vrated
frated f
Variable voltage, variable frequeny
Constant V/f – open-loop
Rectifier
3-phase VSI
supply
C IM
f
Ramp Pulse
+ V Width
s*
Modulator
rate limiter is needed to ensure the slip

change within allowable range (e.g. rated
value)

Simulation example: 415V, 50Hz, 4 pole, Rs = 0.25, Rr = 0.2,
Lr=Ls= 0.0971 H, Lm = 0.0955, J = 0.046 kgm2 , Load: k2
is
In1 Out1
To Workspace2
Subsystem
isd
Va
isq
Out1
ird
speed
Signal 1 In1 Out2 Vb
Vd
Scope
Rate Limiter irq
Signal Builder Out3
Vq
Vc
Constant V/Hz Te
Induction Machine speed
torque To Workspace1
To Workspace
Scope1
constant_vhz_withoutBoost/Signal Builder : Group 1
Signal 1
50
40
30
20
10
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5

Time (sec)
450
400
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
-50
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
With almost no rate limiter

500
200
150
400
100
50
300 0
-50
0 0.5 1 1.5
200 600
400
100 200
0 -200
0 0.5 1 1.5
-100
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
With 628 rad/s2

450
400 200
350 150
100
300
50
250
0
200 -50
0 0.5 1 1.5
150
600
100
400
50
200
0
0
-50
-20 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 -200
0 0.5 1 1.5
1
Constant V/f
Problems with open-loop constant V/f
At low speed, voltage drop across stator impedance is significant compared to

airgap voltage - poor torque capability at low speed
Solution:
Boost voltage at low speed
Maintain Im constant – constant ag
Constant V/f
500
450
400
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
• Torque deteriorate at low frequency – hence compensation commonly

performed at low frequency
• In order to truly compensate need to measure stator current – seldom
performed
Constant V/f
500
450
400
With voltage
350
boost of Irated*Rs
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
• Torque deteriorate at low frequency – hence compensation commonly

performed at low frequency
• In order to truly compensate need to measure stator current – seldom
performed
Constant V/f
with voltage boost at low frequency
Vrated
Linear offset
Non-linear offset – varies with Is

Boost
frated
2
Constant V/f
Problems with open-loop constant V/f

Poor speed regulation

APPLICATIONS
Solution:
Compesate slip
Closed-loop control
Prof. Dr. H. İbrahim OKUMUŞ E-mail : okumus@ktu.edu.tr

Constant V/f – open-loop with slip compensation and voltage boost
Rectifier
3-phase VSI
supply
C IM
f
Ramp Pulse
s* + + V Width
Modulator
+ +
Slip speed
Vboost
calculator
Vdc Idc
How is the slip frequency calculated ?

Idc
+
INV
Vdc

Pdc= VdcIdc Pmotor,in= Pdc – Pinv,losses
STATOR ROTOR
Pmotor,in
Pair-gap
Stator Copper Stator Core

lossess losses
How is the slip frequency calculated ?

Pair-gapc = Tesyn Te =  Pair-gap/syn
For constant V/f control,
Te Te ,rated slip ,rated

 slip  Te
slip slip, rated Te ,rated
Constant V/f – closed-loop with slip regulation
– Modern Power Electronics and AC Drives, BK Bose
• Require speed encoder

• Increase complexity
Constant air-gap flux
A better solution : maintain ag constant. How?
ag, constant → Eag/f , constant → Im, constant (rated)
Controlled to maintain Im at rated

Is Lls Llr’ Ir ’
Rs
+
Lm +
Vs
Eag Rr’/s
–
maintain at rated
Im –
900
800
50Hz
700
30Hz
600
500
Torque
10Hz
400
300
200
100
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
Rr
j L lr 
s
From per-phase equivalent circuit, Im  Is

R
j (L lr  L m )  r
s
• Current is controlled using current- Rr

j L r 
controlled VSI Is  s Im
 r  R
j  L r  r
• The problem of stator impedance drop is  1  r  s
solved
• Dependent on rotor parameters – jslip Tr  1

Is  Im ,
sensitive to parameter variation  r
jslip 

Tr  1
 1  r 
3-phase VSI
Rectifier
supply
C IM
Current
controller
+ slip |Is|
* PI
-
+
s
r
+

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POWER ELECTRONIC

Power Electronic Applications

Prof. Dr. H. İbrahim OKUMUŞ

Karadeniz Technical University

 Switch Mode DC-DC Converters

Power Electronics, Circuits, Devices, and Applications, by M. H. RASHID.

A field of Electrical Engineering that deals with the application of

power semiconductor devices for the control and conversion of

Prof. Dr. H. İbrahim OKUMUŞ

• Improvements in power semiconductors fabrication

• Decline cost in power semiconductor

• Advancement in semiconductor fabrication

Prof. Dr. H. İbrahim OKUMUŞ

• A buck converter is supplied from a 50V battery source. Given L=400uH,

• Boost converter produces output voltage

that is greater or equal to the input

• The boost converter has the following parameters: Vd=20V, D=0.6,

• Isolated DC-DC requires isolation transformer

• Advantages of switched mode over linear power supply

• Modeling of Converters and DC motor

• DC motor: industry workhorse for decades

• Dominates variable speed applications before PE converters were

• Will AC drive replaces DC drive ?

– Predicted 30 years ago

• Advantage: Precise torque and speed control without

e a  k E  Armature back e.m.f.

Therefore steady state speed is given by,

0 to base  armature voltage, above base  field flux reduction

Armature voltage control

P Te Constant torque Constant power

0 to base  armature voltage, above base  field flux reduction

P = EaIa,max = kaIa,max Pmax = EaIa,max = kabaseIa,max

Used to obtain variable armature voltage

• DC-DC switch-mode converters(DC  DC)

Phase-controlled rectifier (continuous current)

 Establish relation between vc and Vt

iref + current vc firing  controlled Vt

Phase-controlled rectifier (continuous current)

Phase-controlled rectifier (continuous current)

•Cosine wave–crossing method

T – 10 ms for 1-phase 50 Hz system

Td – Delay in average output voltage generation

Phase-controlled rectifier (continuous current)

• Model simplified to linear gain if bandwidth (e.g.

• Low frequency voltage ripple  high current

• Switching at high frequency

• Suitable for high performance applications

Switch–mode converters – averaged model

Switch–mode converters – averaged model

Switch–mode converters – small signal model

DC motor – small signal model

Perform Laplace Transformation on ac components

DC motor – small signal model

controller controller controller converter

• The control variable of inner loop (e.g. torque) can be limited by

Design procedure in cascade control structure

• Inner loop (current or torque loop) the fastest – largest

• Design starts from torque loop proceed towards outer

Closed-loop speed control – an example

• Design controllers based on linear small signal model

• Perform large signal simulation for controllers verification

Closed-loop speed control – an example

B = 1 x10–4 kg.m2/sec J = 152 x 10–6 kg.m2

ke = 0.1 V/(rad/s) kt = 0.1 Nm/A