Ch1-Part A Introduction

 Fields and applications of power

electronics (PE)
 Classification and technology
conception of PE converter (PEC)
 Introduction and selection of
semiconductor power switches
Ch1A-1

Introduction Electric Power

Converters serve as
an interface between Converter 1 Converter 2  Converter n
the source and load

Load 1 Load 2  Load n

Point of Load (POL)
 PE circuits convert electric power from one form to another
using electronic devices (電能轉電能)
 PE circuits use semiconductor devices as switches to control
or modify a voltage or current
 PE circuits convert one type or level of a V/I waveform to
another and are called converters Ch1A-2

1
Reasons for Fast-Growing &
Extensive Use
 Advance in power semiconductor (material &
process) technology Si-based  GaN-based or
SiC-based
 Advance in control chip (tsmc 10753 nm)
and control technique (increase in computing
speed and integration)
 Development in materials (LC) & heat transfer

Ch1A-3

PE Objective

 Convert electric power to meet V/I requirements

of different loads to those of the source

 Improve quality and utilization of electric power

 Energy saving

Ch1A-4

2
 Compared with electromechanical &
linear electronic systems
 Advantages including
– High energy conversion efficiency
– Highly integrated power electronic systems
– Reduced EMI and electronic pollution
– Higher reliability
– Use of environmentally clean voltage sources such as
photovoltaic and fuel cells to generate electric power
– The integration of electrical and mechanical systems
– Maximum adaptability and controllability
Ch1A-5

Power Levels of PEC Applications

Power levels encountered in high-efficiency converters
 < 1 W in battery-operated portable devices
 Tens, hundreds, or thousands of watts in power
supplies and UPS for computers or office and consumer
electronics equipment
 kW to MW in variable-speed motor drives, EV
powertrains, and renewable energy applications
 1000 MW in rectifiers and inverters for utility dc
transmission lines (HVDC)
 Include conversions of ac-dc, dc-ac, dc-dc, and ac-ac
Ch1A-6

3
 Application Fields
Power processes range from milliwatts to megawatts

• Aerospace • Medical
• Automotive • Security System
• Commercial • Telecommunication
• Home Appliances • Transportation
• Industrial • Utility Systems
• Games & Entertainment
Ch1A-7

PE產業技術應用分類
安定器 交換式電
變頻器 源供應器
充電器
顯示器
CPU電源
各種電 航太 自動化 適配器
動車輛 醫療 商業
儀器 消費性電子
智慧型 馬達驅動 電能轉換 工業
機器人 遊戲 穩壓器
與 與
娛樂 家電 UPS
感應 電力電子 管理
加熱 交通 控制 Power IC
運輸 技術 通訊
磁性元
電焊
電鍍 電力品質 規範 EMI 件繞製
國防 與
武器 EMC
工因矯 保全 公共 再生 PCB佈線
正器 系統 電力 能源 與製作
太陽能 燃料電
發電 風力
分散式發 池發電
發電 高壓直 電系統
流傳輸
Ch1A-8

4
 Applications

AEROSPACE

Ch1A-9

Aircraft Power System

24 Volt DC 46 Ah Continuous
Recharge Power
Ch1A-10

5
 Space Vehicle Power System
Photovoltaic (PV)-based battery-powered system
Mars photographs

Mars Exploration Rover Opportunity (From NASA) Ch1A-11

Space Station/Satellite Power System

PV-based battery-powered system Ch1A-12

6
 Maximum Power
Point Tracker consume surplus power
(MPPT)

Bidirectional
D2D converter

PE in aerospace applications include power system of aircraft,

spacecraft, and aerospace vehicles
Ch1A-13

PEC in Renewable Energy System Application

Ch1A-14

7
PEC in Electric Vehicles Application

Ch1A-15

Ch1A-16

8
 (Grid-connected PVPS)
(MPPT)

Ch1A-17

Applications

AUTOMOTIVE

Ch1A-18

9
An EV Power and Drive System
 Onboard charger
 Charging pile (dc快充)
 Wireless charging

1. motor control application G2V (grid to vehicle)

2. transportation application V2G
3. motion control BDD2D
other applications
Equalizer
1. fast battery charger
Regenerative braking
2. inverter for renewable energy generation
3. utility power system: HVDC, static VAR compensators Autopilot
Ch1A-19

Electric Vehicle (EV)

 Motor driver and control
 Battery charge, control, and energy management
 Auxiliary power supply for automotive electronics

Ch1A-20

10
Electric Vehicle

Ch1A-21

EV Charger

Ch1A-22

11
 EV Wireless Charger

Wireless Power Transfer, WPT Ch1A-23

Transportation Vehicle Electrification

陸 海 空

Ch1A-24

12
 Electric Trains
MRT

High-speed rail train

High-speed rail train

Rail train
Ch1A-25

Solar Vehicle
Solarimpulse

Ch1A-26

13
 全球電動車產業概況
各國EV政策發展趨勢
 各國政府為促進環境永續發展、追求低碳節能的目標，考量電
動車具有低噪音零廢氣排放的優勢，紛紛鼓勵車廠擴大投資研
發電動車，並祭出電動車購車補貼以及多項稅率減免優惠，以
促進電動車市場的蓬勃發展

 挪威與荷蘭拔得頭籌，率先宣布自2025年起禁售汽、柴油引擎
車款。目前挪威電動車占整體新車銷售24.0％，領先全球

 汽車製造大國德國計劃2030年起終止燃油車款販售

 全球第一大車市中國(2030年禁售燃油車)將新能源汽車納入
「中國製造2025」的重點扶植產業，全力發展電動車，規劃在
2020年達到500萬輛電動車掛牌上路的目標
Ch1A-27

全球電動車產業概況
各國電動車政策發展趨勢
 印度預計在2030年淘汰傳統燃油車的銷售，越南首都河內也預
計在2030年全面汰換電動機車

 臺灣，行政院拍板定案「空氣污染防制行動方案」，明訂2030
年起新購公務車及公車全面電動化、2035年起禁售燃油機車、
2040年禁售燃油汽車

 英、法相繼公布自2040年起市售新車必須是純電動車

 為響應政府對於傳統燃油汽車的落日條款，各大車廠亦發表純
電動車(battery electric vehicle, BEV)的推出時刻表，如全球
第一大車廠Volkswagen預計2030年旗下所有車款全面電動化；
Toyota自2050年開始僅販售BEV等
https://info.taiwantrade.com/biznews/%E5%85%A8%E7%90%83%E9%9B%BB%E5%8B%95%E8
%BB%8A%E7%94%A2%E6%A5%AD%E6%A6%82%E6%B3%81-1652582.html Ch1A-28

14
 全球電動車產業概況-市場規模
 根據國際能源總署(IEA)出版之Global EV Outlook 2022報告
指出，電動車在整個汽車市場中的佔有率已從2020的4%左右
上升到2022的14%，預測2023將進一步增加到18%

 2022全球純電動車(Battery Electric Vehicle, BEV)的銷售量達

768萬輛，較2021(481萬輛)大幅成長59.7%；插電式混合動力
車(Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle, PHEV)銷售量為284萬輛，
較2021 (196萬輛)大幅成長44.9%；2022全球電動車銷售量達
1,052萬輛，較2021的677萬輛，大幅成長55.4%，預測2023全
球電動車將達到1400萬輛，

 在越多國家以載具電氣化做為減碳政策主力的推動下，IEA估
算，2030電動車耗電量占比將攀升至3.9%，歐洲則將突破
6.5%，總電力需求將超過1100TWh
Ch1A-29

全球電動車產業概況-市場規模

2016-2022年全球電動車銷量
(來源：EV-Volumes、LMC Automotive，車輛中心整理)
Ch1A-30

15
全球電動車產業概況-市場規模

2022年各地區及主要銷售國家電動車銷量
(來源：EV-Volumes、LMC Automotive，車輛中心整理)
Ch1A-31

全球電動車產業概況-廠牌市場規模

2022全球前10大電動車銷售車廠
2022全球前10大熱銷電動車款 Ch1A-32

16
全
球
電
動
車
產
業
概
況-
廠
牌
市
場
規
模
Ch1A-33

EV成本結構  BloombergNEF 彭博新能源財經， 2022

總體各類型鋰離子電池的統計平均價格，
每度電151美元($151/kWh)，較2021漲
7%，2023預測維持$151/kWh，2026每度
電成本將低於$100/kWh
 若單看車用電池模組2022年的統計價格，
每度電$138/kWh，如果只計算電池成本
則降為$115/kWh
 電池組包含電池芯、電池模組、電池管理
系統、線路包裝、及熱管理系統等

電池組是電動車最昂貴
的單一零組件，2016年
佔美國中型電動車成本
約50%，現今成本比重
已經接近30%，且持續
下降中
年電池組成本每度電價格趨勢 ($/kWh)；Source: 彭博新能源財
Ch1A-34

17
 Applications

COMMERCIAL

Ch1A-35

Advertising Neon Signs & Displays

Ch1A-36

18
Lighting-LED Driver

Ch1A-37

Computers’ Power

Ch1A-38

19
 Washing Machines
• FUZZY全自動控制
• 四段水位控
• 預約洗衣功能(可選擇6或9小
時後洗淨)
• 強力反轉龍捲水流
• 四段洗水行程選擇(標準、強
洗、快速、輕柔)

Ch1A-39

Air Condition (變頻式冷氣機)

Ch1A-40

20
Televisions PDP

LCD

Embedded or external power supplies

Ch1A-41

Applications

INDUSTRIAL

Ch1A-42

21
 Applications
INDUSTRIAL

Ch1A-43

HVDC
SIEMENS@
Rating: up to 3000 MW

Ch1A-44

22
 Motor Drivers

Switched
Reluctance
Motor

Ch1A-45

Motor Drivers

Ch1A-46

23
 Induction Heating

Ch1A-47

Uninterruptible Power Supplies

(UPS)

Off-line (standby) UPS

On-line UPS

workstations/servers, audio/video equipment, network devices,

phone systems, and security systems Ch1A-48

24
 UPS

Line-Active UPS

Ch1A-49

Applications

Medical

Ch1A-50

25
 Fitness Machines

Motor drive + control

Ch1A-51

Medical Instrument
光子刀立體放射手
電腦斷層 術定位系統

脈衝光
NMR Motor drive,
high power,
high-frequency
pulse

Ch1A-52

26
 Applications

Utility System
 Power Factor Correction (PFC)

 Reactive power (VAR) compensators

Ch1A-53

VAR Compensators

SVC Station (ABB@) SVC Configuration

Ch1A-54

27
 System View of PE Converters

Vcontrol
Converters serve as an interface
between the source and load

Power processor (converter)

 switches: 2 or 3-terminal devices (diode, MOSFET, …)
 L, C, transformer, ….
Controller
 PWM IC, DSP, microcontroller, single-chip, ….
Ch1A-55

Converter Classification
Output
dc ac
Input
ac Rectification AC control

Vcontrol dc Conversion Inversion

 ac input / dc output ac-dc converter  rectifier

 dc input / ac output dc-ac converter  inverter
 dc input / dc output dc-dc converter  chopper /switching
power supply (SPS)
 ac input / ac output ac-ac converter  cycle-converter /ac
controller
Ch1A-56

28
 AC-DC Rectifier
ac line voltage AC-DC Regulated/unregulated
(50/60 Hz) sine   low-ripple dc
wave Converter

 Rectifier produces a dc o/p from an ac i/I, average

power is transferred from an ac source to a dc load
 Applications:
 dc motor drives
 Regulated dc power supplies
 High voltage dc transmission (HVDC)
 Wind generator converter
Ch1A-57

AC-DC Rectifier

Uncontrolled Controlled

Operate from a 60-Hz ac line voltage by converting

the ac signal to an unregulated or regulated dc signal
Ch1A-58

29
 DC-AC Inverter
Battery, solar Low-distortion
DC-AC
powered dc, ac-   ac v/i with
unregulated dc Converter variable amp.
& freq.
 The average power of an inverter flows from the dc side to
the ac side (120Vrms 60-Hz voltage from a 12-V battery)
 Applications:
 PV inverter
 UPS (uninterruptible power supplies)
 Variable-frequency ac motor drives
 Aircraft variable-speed supplies
 Induction heating supplies Ch1A-59

DC-AC Inverter

Desired V0, 0, phase number

DC-AC DC-AC
  
Converter Converter

Voltage Source Inverter (VSI) Current Source Inverter (CSI)

Ch1A-60

30
 DC-DC (D2D) Converter
Battery, solar DC-DC Different level
powered dc, ac-   dc
dc unregulated dc Converter

 Produce a specified regulated dc V or I from a different

or unregulated dc value
 Applications:
 Non-isolated/isolated SPS
 Server power
 Auxiliary power
 dc motor drives
Ch1A-61

D2D Converter Classification

SEPIC

Ch1A-62

31
 DC-DC Converter

DC-DC

Ch1A-63

AC-AC Converter
Line frequency AC-AC
(50/60 Hz) sine
  Different/equal
Converter frequency output
wave

 To modify the level and/or frequency of an ac signal

(cycle-converter, ac controller)
 Applications:
 Light dimmers
 VAR regulators
 ac motor speed controls
 Electronic tap changers
 Solid-state relays (SSR)
Ch1A-64

32
Operating Mode of Converter
 Converter can operate in different
modes, depending on circuit and
Ac
control parameters line
Battery
 Direction of average power flow
determines the converter classification

 Power conversion can be a multistep process involving

more than one type of converter, e.g. ac-dc-ac conversion
ac-dc dc-ac

Ch1A-65

PE Concepts

Ch1A-66

33
 PE Concepts
Solution 1) voltage divider dissipative realization

 No feedback control mechanism

 Low efficiency
Ch1A-67

PE Concepts
Solution 2) Linear regulator dissipative realization

Linear region

 With feedback control to gain well-regulated output

 Low EMI
 Low efficiency for high-power applications, big bulk & weight
Ch1A-68

34
 PE Concepts
Solution 3) Use of an SPSD (single pole double throw) switch

(Switch o/p voltage)

Switch changes the dc voltage level

1
 
V  DTs  0  (1  D )Ts  DV g
Ts g
t on position 1
D
Ts
Ch1A-69

PE Concepts
Solution 3) Use of an SPSD (single pole double throw) switch

In addition to the dc component, vs(t) also contains undesirable

harmonics related to switching frequency fs
Ch1A-70

35
 PE Concepts
 Ideal switch power loss is zero
 If filter is lossless, then efficiency
will be 100%

Gain

Freq.
0 f1 f2 fs fk

Ch1A-71

PE Concepts
Add control system for well-regulated o/p voltage

vfb

v fb
H ( s) 
v
Controller
 v fb  Hv
1. o/p voltage v = f(vg, R, d)
2. Feedback control system can vary d to cause v to follow a given vref
3. SPDT switch is realized using switched-mode semiconductor devices
Ch1A-72

36
 PE Concepts-In practice
 Filter will have some losses and will absorb some power
 Electronic switches will not be ideal and cause losses
 However, the switch-mode efficiency can still be
relatively high (> 90%)
 The required values of the LP filter can be made smaller
with higher fs
 The power conversion process usually involves system
control. Converter o/p V and/or I are measured, and
control parameters (duty cycle) are adjusted to maintain
the desired output
Ch1A-73

Components of Converter

Ch1A-74

37
 Basic PE Component: Resistor
v
V  iR (Ohm's law)
i R
 Energy dissipative element
 As load and parasitic element
 Parasitic resistance: battery & other dc source,
conductor, inductor, transformer & motor winding,
capacitors, …
 Skin effect: high-frequency current tends to
concentrate near the surface of conductor
 Solved by increasing surface area of conductor
(bunched, multi-strand)
Ch1A-75

Basic PE Component: Inductor

 Parasitic inductor, components lead inductor
transformer & motor leakage inductor
di L (t ) di (t ) v L (t )
v L (t )  L  L  vL
dt dt L
iL L
1 t
iL (t )  i L (0)   v L ( ) d
L 0
for periodic waveform: iL (T  t 0 )  iL ( t 0 )
1 t L L1 t
L 0 T L 0
0 v L ( ) d ,  0  v L ( ) d
T
1 t

T 
0
v L ( ) d  v L (t )  0

average value Ch1A-76

38
Basic PE Component: Capacitor
 Parasitic capacitor in device, transformer winding,
semiconductor device
dvC (t ) dv (t ) iC (t ) vC
iC (t )  C  C 
dt dt C iC
C
1 t
vC ( t )  vC (0)   iC ( ) d
C 0
for periodic waveform: vC ( T  t 0 )  vC (t 0 )
1 t C C 1 t
0
C 
0
iC ( ) d ,
T
0 
TC 0
iC ( ) d

1 t

T 0
iC ( ) d  iC ( t )  0

average value Ch1A-77

Sources

Practical current source

 Energy giving element

 Categories:
 voltage/current source
 dc/ac source
Ch1A-78

39
 Sink

Current Sink: modeled by

large L in series with a small R

Voltage Sink: modeled by large

C in parallel with a small R

Ch1A-79

Electrical Switch
 Ideal electrical switch
On-state vsw = 0 for any isw
Off-state isw = 0 for any vsw

vc

vc: voltage, current, light,

temperature signals

Ch1A-80

40
 Electrical Switch
 Categorized by
 On-state current direction: bidirection, unidirection
 Off-state voltage polarity: bipolar, unipolar
 Triggering mechanism: controlled, uncontrolled

Ch1A-81

Transformer
 Energy transformation, electrical isolation,
impedance matching
 Induced voltage
d 
vi  N i  Ni ( v  t  N    L  i   )
dt t
 Energy conservation i1(t) i2(t)
N1 : N2
v1i1  v2 i2  
+ +

v1(t) v2(t)
2
Nj  Nj 
− −
vj  vi , Z j    Zi , i  j
Ni  Ni 
Ch1A-82

41
Permissible & Non-permissible
Connection

Ch1A-83

Converter Desired Characteristics

 Output v/i is insensitive to load, input v/i, and

component value variations
 Min. distortion & loading on source side
 Min. distortion & min. components on output v/i
 Small-range parameter can control large variation
output v/i
 Min. power losses & max. resistance to transients
 Min. energy store for elements

Ch1A-84

42
 Converter Performance Measure

Transient Performance
 Inrush current: instantaneous source current
when power on
 Short circuit current: source current when
output terminal shorted
 Switch stress: highest v/i & highest rise or fall
rate of v/i across the power switch

Ch1A-85

Converter Performance Measure

Steady-State Performance
 Forward transfer characteristics
vo i
voltage transfer ratio Tvv  , current transfer ratio Tii  o
vs is
 Reflective characteristics
vs i
voltage reflection ratio Rvv  , current reflection ratio Rii  s
vo io
 Control characteristics
Vo
converter gain M 
Vs
 Harmonic profile: non-sinusoidal v/i waveform
 Efficiency is a good measure of converter performance
Ch1A-86

43
 Surge Voltage Protection

 Selenium (Se 硒) diode

 Metal Oxide Varistors (MOV)

Ch1A-87

Switching Devices Protection

 Requirement
 Voltage/current limitation
 Energy diversion during switching
transition
 Protector
 Snubber circuit
 Decrease switching losses
 Soft switching: zero-voltage or
zero-current switching (ZVS/ZCS)
Ch1A-88

44
 Packaging
 Converter and subsystem packaging is important
for performance and reliability
 Design requirement
 Removing internal heat through heat sink
 Shielding
converter from external/internal
EMI through layout
 Reducing parasitic elements through layout
Ch1A-89

Heat Sinks & Bus Bars

 Switching Losses  heat  temperature rising 
damage device

 Heat Transfer Ways

 Conduction
 Convection
 Radiation
 Power path conductors (bus
bars) need wide and large
area cross-sections 
minimize self-inductance
Ch1A-90

45
Interdisciplinary Nature of PE
Heat Transfer
Semiconductor
Construct Design

 The design of power conversion tech includes many disciplines from electrical engineering (EE)
 Advances in semiconductor switching capability combined with the improvement in efficiency
and performance of electrical devices have made PE an important and fast-growing area in EE
Ch1A-91

Future Development Trend of PE

 Construct PE converters of small size and weight, which
process substantial power at high frequency and efficiency
 Continued technological improvement of high-power and
high-frequency semiconductor devices  GaN, SiC
 Improvement in the design of driver circuits for switching
devices
 Improvement in control techniques, including optimal,
adaptive, and AI controls
 Integration of power and control circuitry on “smart
power” ICs and further development of application-
specific modules
 Power factor correction techniques and EMI/EMC
reduction Ch1A-92

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