Dr.

Babasaheb Ambedkar Technological University

Electrical Engineering Department

Subject:- (BTEEC701) Power System

Operation and Control

UNIT:- 1 FUNDAMENTALS OF POWER

SYSTEM
 UNIT:- 1 FUNDAMENTALS OF POWER SYSTEM

• Concepts of real and reactive powers, complex power, per-unit

representation of power system, Transmission capacity, load
characteristics, real power balance and its effect on system frequency,
load frequency mechanism, reactive power, balance and its effect, on-
load tap changing transformer and regulating transformer
Structure of Power System
• Concepts of power
• Active power or Real power
Active power is the actual power dissipated or consumed by an electric load. It depends on the total load
impedance. Active power is also known as True power and Real power. It is measured in Watts. Active power is denoted
by the letter P.
Active power does not produce any phase shift between current and voltage. Hence current and voltage are always in
phase for a resistive load.
• Reactive power
Reactive power can be defined as an imaginary power in a capacitive or inductive load. It is measured in VAR (Volt
ampere reactance) and denoted by the letter Q.
Reactive power can a little tricky to understand. This exists in the system when the voltage and current in an AC
circuit are not in phase. Passive devices such as capacitors and inductors do not actually dissipate power, in turn, stores it in
the form of electric charges or magnetic field. This stored energy can be revived from the devices later. Hence it is a form
of energy that is neither lost nor gain yet affect the system performance. Even though capacitive and inductive loads do not
dissipate power, it causes unwanted voltage dips and current flow in the system.
The rate at which active power and reactive power are consumed by the load is determined by the power factor of the
load
• Complex and apparent power
Complex power is the complex sum of real and reactive powers. Apparent power is the absolute value of complex
power. It is a calculated value of power, that is independent of the type of load. It is measured in VA (volt-ampere).
Apparent power is denoted by the letter S. It is similar to power in a DC circuit i.e. the arithmetic product of voltage and
current

Calculation of Active, Reactive, Apparent and

complex powers.
Let us consider a simple circuit with resistance R, Reactance X and impedance Z. Let V be the applied voltage and I be
the current flow in the circuit.
Active power or Real power or True power completely depends on circuit resistance in a purely resistive load. Hence
active power can be expressed as follows.

Active power, P = (Current)2 x Resistance = I2R

If the circuit is a purely reactive circuit (resistance=0), active power shall be zero. Reactive power in a purely reactive
circuit can be calculated using the following formula:

Reactive power, Q = (Current)2 x Reactance = I2X

Active power, P = VI.CosΦ

Reactive Power, Q = VI.SinΦ

Complex Power S = VI.CosΦ + j.VI.SinΦ

Apparent power, |S| = VI = I2Z

• Per-unit representation of power system
Definition: The per-unit value of any quantity is defined as the ratio of actual value in any unit to the base or
reference value in the same unit. Any quantity is converted into per unit quantity by dividing the numeral value by
the chosen base value of the same dimension. The per-unit value is dimensionless.

•Base voltage = rated voltage of the machine

•Base current = rated current of the machine
•Base impedance = base voltage /base current
•Base power = base voltage x base current
Putting the value of base current from the equation (1) in equation (2) we get

Putting the value of base current from the equation (1) in the equation (3) we get
Putting the value of base impedance from the equation (4) in the equation (5) we will get
the value of impedance per unit
Change of Base Formula

Capacitor Bank Per-Unit Calculations

Example of Per unit system
Step 1: Separate by Voltage Zones
Step 2: Assign Base Values
Step 3: Calculate Base Impedance for Each Zone
Step 4: Calculate the Per Unit Impedance for Each Zone
Step 5: Calculate the Per Unit Impedance for Transformer T1
Step 6: Calculate the Per Unit Impedance for Transformer T2
Step 7: Calculate the Per Unit Current and Per Unit Voltage
Step 8: Use Ohm’s Law to Calculate the Per Unit Current
Step 9: Calculate the Base Current in Each Zone
Step 10: Calculate the Actual Current in Each Zone
 examples For practice

1. The single-line diagram of a three-phase system is shown

in Fig. 1. Using the common base Sb = 50 MVA, draw the
impedance diagram in per unit including the load impedance.
The manufacturer’s nominal ratings are given as
follows:                                                                                                    
                                        
                                                                                                                   FIGURE 1 Single-line diagram of Example 1.
                  
The three-phase load at bus 4 absorbs 60 MVA at 0.75 power
factor (lagging), and lines 1, 2, and 3 have the reactance of 40Ω,
32 Ω, and 30Ω, respectively.
Performance Equation of transmission line
= 22.3 deg
Load characteristics
• TRANSFORMERS