NERVOUS AND

ENDOCRINE
SYSTEM
DR.ZAMAN
Nervous System
The nervous system is a complex collection of nerves and specialized cells known as neurons
that transmit signals between different parts of the body. It coordinates all body functions,
enabling a person to adapt to changes in internal and external environments.
It has two main types of cells, Neurons and Neuroglia, and two main divisions the central nervous
system [CNS] and peripheral nervous system.
Neuron
Neurons, the primary functional unit of the nervous system, respond to stimuli and transmit
responses by means of electromechanical messages.
The main parts of a neuron are the cell body. An axon and several dendrites project from each
cell body.
Axons conduct nerve impulses away from the cell body.
Dendrites conduct impulses toward the cell body.
Neurotransmission
The purpose of a neuron is to initiate, receive, and process messages through electrochemical
conduction of impulses, also known as neurotransmission. Neuron activity can be provoked by
mechanical, thermal and chemical stimuli.
Neuron
Neuroglia
The supportive structures of the nervous system, neuroglia, are also called glial cells.
Astroglia, or astrocytes, exist throughout the nervous system. They supply nutrients to neurons
and help them maintain their electrical potential.
Ependymal cells line the ventricles, four small cavities in the brain.
Microglia are phagocytic cells that ingest and digest microorganisms and waste products from
neurons.
Oligodendroglia and Schwann cells support and electrically insulate axons by forming protective
myelin sheaths.
Central Nervous System
The CNS includes the spinal cord and the brain.
Brain
The brain consists of the cerebrum, cerebellum, brain stem, and primitive structures that lie
below the cerebrum—the diencephalon, limbic system, and reticular activating system.
Cerebrum
The cerebrum has right and left hemispheres. The outer surface of the cerebrum is made up of
gyri singular Gyrus (convolutions) and sulci singular sulcus(creases or fissures).
Lobes of Cerebral Hemispheres
• The frontal lobe influences personality, judgment, abstract reasoning, social behavior,
language expression, and movement.
• The temporal lobe controls hearing, language comprehension, and storage and recall of
memories (although memories are stored throughout the entire brain).
• The parietal lobe interprets and integrates sensations, including pain, temperature, and touch.
It also interprets size, shape, distance, and texture. The parietal lobe of the non-dominant
hemisphere is especially important for awareness of one’s own body shape.
• The occipital lobe functions primarily to interpret visual stimuli.
Cerebellum
The cerebellum, the second largest brain region, lies posterior and inferior to the cerebrum. The
cerebellum functions to maintain muscle tone, coordinate muscle movement, and control
balance.
Ascending and Descending Pathways
Sensory impulses travel via the afferent, or ascending, neural pathways to the brain’s sensory
cortex.

Motor impulses travel from the brain to the muscles via efferent, or descending, pathways.
Originating in the motor cortex of the frontal lobe, these impulses reach the lower motor
neurons of the peripheral nervous system via upper motor neurons.
Peripheral Nervous System
The peripheral nervous system consists of the cranial nerves, spinal nerves, and autonomic
nervous system (ANS).
Common Signs and Symptoms Related
to Nervous System
• Absence seizure is marked by a sudden, momentary loss of conscious ness, typically
accompanied by loss of muscle control or spasms, and a vacant facial expression.
• Aphasia is loss or impairment of the ability to communicate through speech, written language,
or signs. It typically results from brain disease or trauma.
• Aphonia is loss of the ability to speak.
• Apraxia is complete or partial inability to perform purposeful movements in the absence of
sensory or motor impairment.
• Ataxia is impairment of the ability to coordinate voluntary muscle movement.
• Athetosis is a condition characterized by constant, slow, writhing, involuntary movements of
the extremities, especially the hands.
Common Signs and Symptoms Related
to Nervous System
• Aura is the word for the sensations that occur before a paroxysmal attack, such as a seizure or
migraine headache.
• Bradylalia refers to abnormally slow speech, caused by a brain lesion.
• Coma is a state of unconsciousness from which the patient can’t be aroused.
• Delirium is a disorientation to time and place; the patient may also experience illusions and
hallucinations.
• Dementia is an organic mental syndrome marked by general loss of intellectual abilities, with
chronic pers
Common Signs and Symptoms Related
to Nervous System
• Dysphasia is impairment of speech involving failure to arrange words in their proper order,
usually resulting from injury to the speech area in the cerebral cortex.
• Dyspraxia is a partial loss of the ability to perform coordinated movements, with no associated
defect in motor or sensory functions, disintegration, confusion, disorientation, and stupor.
• Hemiparesis refers to paralysis or muscular weakness affecting only one side of the body.
Diagnostic Tests related to Nervous
System
• Cerebral angiography is a radiographic procedure in which radiopaque contrast is injected into
blood vessels to allow visualization of the vascular system of the brain.
• Echoencephalography is a diagnostic technique that involves the use of ultrasound waves to
study structures within the brain.
• In myelography, dye or air is injected into the patient’s subarachnoid space after lumbar
puncture. X-rays are then taken.
• Electroencephalography, also called EEG, records the brain’s continuous electrical activity.
Common Disorders of Nervous System
• Cerebral palsy is a chronic disorder of motor function resulting from nonprogressive brain
damage or a brain lesion.
• Epilepsy refers to a group of neurologic disorders marked by uncontrolled electrical discharge
from the cerebral cortex and typically manifested by seizures with clouding of consciousness.
Status epilepticus describes a continuous seizure state, which is life-threatening.
• Bell’s palsy is a unilateral facial paralysis of sudden onset, attributable to a lesion of the facial
nerve. It’s generally not permanent.
• Alzheimer’s disease produces three hallmark features in the brain: neurofibrillary tangles,
neuritic plaques, and granulovascular degeneration. Early signs progress to severe deterioration
in memory, language, and motor function.
Common Disorders of Nervous System
• Multiple sclerosis is a progressive demyelination of the white matter of the brain and spinal
cord that results in weakness, incoordination, paresthesia, speech disturbances, and visual
complaints.
• Myasthenia gravis is abnormal muscle weakness and fatigability, especially in the muscles of
the face and throat, resulting from a defect in the conduction of nerve impulses at th myoneural
junction.
• Parkinson’s disease is a slow-progressing, degenerative neurologic disorder that produces
muscle rigidity, akinesia, and involuntary tremor.
• Tetanus is an acute, commonly fatal infection caused by the anaerobic bacillus Clostridium
tetani, which usually enters the body through a contaminated puncture wound.
Endocrine System
The endocrine system controls complicated body activities by secreting chemical substances
into the circulatory system.

The major components of the endocrine system are glands (specialized cell clusters or organs)
and hormones (chemical substances secreted by the glands in response to stimulation).
Glands of Endocrine System
The major glands of the endocrine system are the:
• pituitary gland
• thyroid gland
• parathyroid glands
• adrenal glands
• pancreas
• pineal body
• thymus
Pituitary Gland
The pituitary gland is also called the “master gland” because it controls all the other glands. It’s
divided into two regions: the anterior pituitary lobe and the posterior pituitary lobe.
Pituitary Gland
The largest region of the pituitary gland, the anterior pituitary lobe (adenohypophysis) produces
at least seven hormones.
• Growth hormone (GH), or somatotropin, promotes the growth of bony and soft tissues.
• Thyrotropin, or thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), influences secretion of thyroid hormone.
• Corticotropin stimulates the adrenal cortex to produce cortisol.
• Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) stimulates the growth of graafian follicles. It also
stimulates estrogen secretion in females and the development of sperm cells in males.
• Luteinizing hormone (LH) stimulates maturation of the ovarian follicle and the ovum and
ovulation in females. It stimulates production and secretion of testoterone in males.
Pituitary Gland
• Prolactin (PRL), or mammotropin, stimulates breast development during pregnancy and is
responsible for the production of milk.
• Melanocyte-stimulating hormone is responsible for the formation of melanin pigment in the
skin.

The posterior pituitary lobe (neurohypophysis) makes up about 25% of the gland. It stores and
releases antidiuretic hormone (ADH) and oxytocin.
ADH, also called vasopressin, stimulates water resorption by the kidneys. Oxytocin stimulates
the ejection of breast milk and contraction of the uterus during labor.
Thyroid Gland
Thyroid gland produce the thyroid hormones thyroxine (T4), triiodothyronine (T3), and
thyrocalcitonin (calcitonin). T3 and T4 are collectively known as thyroid hormones. They
influence many metabolic processes, including cellular heat production, protein synthesis, and
carbohydrate metabolism.
Parathyroid Glands
The parathyroid glands work together as a single unit, producing parathyroid hormone
(PTH). This hormone regulates the calcium and phosphorus content of the blood and bones.
Adrenal Glands
The two adrenal glands sit on top of the two kidneys. They produce following hormones.
• Glucocorticoids affect all cells in the body but specialize in controlling the metabolism of
carbohydrates, fats, and proteins; stress resistance; antibody formation; lymphatic functions;
and recovery from injury and inflammation.
• Mineralocorticoids are secreted by the cortex and control the regulation and secretion of
sodium and potassium. Aldosterone is the principle mineralocorticoid and is responsible for
electrolyte and water balance.
• Sex hormones include small amounts of the male hormone androgen which promotes such
secondary sex characteristics as facial hair and a low-pitched voice.
Pancreas
Pancreatic hormones include:
• insulin, the hormone responsible for the storage and use of carbohydrates and for decreasing
the body’s blood glucose levels; it’s produced by beta cells in the pancreas
• glucagon, which increases blood glucose levels and is produced by alpha cells in the pancreas
• somatostatin, a neurotransmitter released by delta cells in the pancreas that inhibits the
release of glucagon and insulin.
Pineal Gland
The tiny pineal body lies at the back of the third ventricle of the brain. This gland produces the
hormone melatonin, which is involved in the reproductive system and the body’s circadian
rhythms.
Thymus
Located below the sternum, the thymus contains lymphatic tissue. Thymus produces the
hormones thymosin and thymopoietin, its major role involves the immune system
Common Signs and Symptoms related to
Endocrine System
• Hirsutism is an excessive growth of dark hair. Its occurrence on a woman’s body results from
excessive androgen production.
• Polydipsia is excessive thirst, a symptom of diabetes mellitus.
• Polyphagia is excessive hunger, also a symptom of diabetes mellitus.
• Polyuria is the increased excretion of urine by the kidneys; it’s a sign of diabetes mellitus and
diabetes insipidus.
Common Disorders of Endocrine System
Endocrine problems are caused by hyperfunction, resulting in excess hormone effects, or
hypofunction, resulting in hormone deficiency.

Primary dysfunction is caused by disease within an endocrine gland.

Secondary dysfunction occurs when endocrine tissue is affected by dysfunction of a
nonendocrine organ.
Common Disorders of Endocrine System
• Adiposogenital dystrophy is marked by increased body fat and underdevelopment of
secondary sex characteristics in males. This disorder is caused by damage to the hypothalamus,
which causes decreased secretion of gonadotropic hormones from the anterior pituitary gland.
• Diabetes insipidus is caused by deficiency of circulating ADH, or vasopressin. ADH deficiency
leads to extreme polyuria. Patients can urinate up to 30 L of dilute urine per day because the
kidneys can’t concentrate urine.
• Gigantism begins while the bones are still growing and causes proportional overgrowth of all
body tissues.
• Acromegaly occurs after bone growth is complete, causing bones and organs to thicken. Bones
of the face, jaw, and extremities gradually enlarge in a patient with this condition.
Common Disorders of Endocrine System
• Hyperthyroidism results from excess thyroid hormone. The most common cause is Graves’
disease, which in- creases T4 production, enlarges the thyroid gland (goiter), and causes
metabolic changes.
• Hypothyroidism results from low serum thyroid hormone or cellular resistance to thyroid
hormone. It’s caused by insufficiency of the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, or thyroid gland.
• Diabetes mellitus is a chronic insulin deficiency or resistance to insulin by the cells. This form
of diabetes causes problems with carbohydrate, protein, and fat me tabolism. Diabetes mellitus
is classified as type 1 (insulin-dependent) or type 2 (non-insulin-dependent). Type 2 diabetes is
the more prevalent form.
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