V.

Other Significant Events and Personalities in the

History of Lie Detection
a. The Word Association Test
The application of psychology in the detection of deception in a form
of word association test was conceptualized in 1879. Sir Francis
Galton was the first to conduct experiments about the idea of word
association. These procedure involves presenting numerous words that
are irrelevant and inserted with words that are pertinent to the issue
under investigation. The examinee is directed to call out the word that
first comes to his mind. It supposed that a guilty examinee will indicate
obvious mental conflict that becomes observable when answering the
words related to the crime and words that have no connection to crime
under investigation. In 1908, Hugo Munsterberg prescribe the use of
word association test in a forensic application t determine guilt.
b. The Ink Polygraph
Sir James Mackenzie, a famous English heart surgeon,
was credited for the invention of ink polygraph. The
machine based sphygmograph was designed not for lie
detection but for medical use. The instrument record
tracings of the radial, jugular and hepatic pulse. He first
decribed the instrument in an article entitled the ink
polygraph in 1908.
c. The Cardio-Pneumo-Psychogram or Breadboard
Polygraph
John Larson was credited for developing the cardio-
pneumo-psychogram that was used in Berkeley police
department. The instrument is capable of continuously
recording blood pressure, pulse and respiration during
examination. It was assembled in portable form and was
used successfully in the test of criminal suspects. Larson
polygraph takes about half an hour to set up. He also
designed a relevant irrelevant interviewing techniques
which he used in the investigation of criminal cases.
d. Keeler Polygraph
The Keeler polygraph was originally manufactured by the
Western Electro-Mechanical Company. It had three
tambours: a cardiosphygmograph, a pneumograph, and a
second pneumograph or a muscular movement device. The
kymograph could b adjusted to run the chart paper to 3, 6,
or 12 inches per minute. Associated Research, Inc. later
produced the Keeler polygraph, similar to the original
design. It includes a galvanograph channel, and the chart
speeds were adjusted to 6 and 12 inches per minute.
Keeler polygraph was called Emotograph. It is more
advance than the breadboard polygraph of John Larson.
e. Relevant Irrelevant Technique
The Relevant Irrelevant Technique uses crime-relevant
questions which refers to the issue being tested and crime-
irrelevant questions which are not related to the case. Crime-
irrelevant questions are designed to control for interpersonal
differences. Physiological data is analyzed by clinical
approach in which the reaction to crime-relevant question is
compared to the reaction of crime irrelevant question. The
theory of Relevant Irrelevant Test suggests that physiological
response are produced by anxiety of being detected when
lying. Examinee is pronounced lying if the reaction to the
crime-relevant questions is greater than the crime-irrelevant
questions.
f. Peak of Tension Test
There are two types of Peak of Tension Test, the Known Solution
POT (KSPOT) and Searching Peak of Tension. A Known Solution
POT is used to determine if the examinee has knowledge of details of
a crime that have not been disclosed to anyone. It is presumed that
only the perpetrator, the victim or the investigator have knowledge
about the details of the crime being investigated. A Searching POT
(SPOT) is used to determine details of a crime that are not known to
officials, such as the location of an unrecovered body, but would be
known to a participant in the crime. The chart is evaluated by simply
identifying the point in the tracings where physiological arousal has
peaked.
These tests are not generally used to determine truth or deception,
but rather to assist in the investigation or interrogation.
g. Berkeley Psychograph
Captain Clarence D. Lee of Berkeley Police Department
designed the Berkeley psychograph similar to Keeler
polygraph. The instrument consists of a chart drive
recording unit, a pneumograph, a cardiograph, and a
stimulus signal unit.

h. Reid Polygraph
John E. Reid devised an instrument capable of
recording muscular activity along with changes in blood
pressure, pulse, respiration, and GSR.
i. The Reid Control Question Technique (General
Question Test)
The Reid Control Question Technique was introduced in 1947. It
uses control question as basic response indicator. The technique
consists of six (6) types of testing procedure which include the
Straight -Through Test, Card Test, Mixed Question Test, Silent
Answer Test, Yes Test and the Guilt Complex Test. The methods of
chart analysis is called Global Analysis or Clinical Approach, in
which the physiological response are evaluated as a whole.
Subject’s behavior and facts of the case is also considered in
determining the test outcome. In 1953, the Guilt Complex Test was
introduced by John E. Reid. This technique was designed to test the
overly rsponsive polygraph subject.
j. Backster Zone Comparison Test
The Zone Comparison Test was developed by Cleve
Backster in 1960. The technique has three (3) zone - green,
red, & black - which represents the types of polygraph
questions. The Backster Zone Comparison Test consists of
three (3) testing format - the Backster SKY, Backster
Exploratory, and Backster You - Phase. Backster introduced
and incorporated a sacrifice relevant question, earlier - in -
life comparison question and symptomatic question to the
existing relevant irrelevant test format. The Backster Zone
Comparison Tests were developed as modifications of the
original comparison question technique of John Reid.
k. Numerical Scoring of polygraph Data
Cleve Backster was credited for the introduction of
numerical scoring approach in the evaluation of polygraph
charts. The procedure involves assigning numerical scores
on the degree of physiological response observed in
relevant and comparison questions. Backster also credited
for developing the Uniform Chart markings. He founded the
Backster School of Lie Detection in San Diego, California.
l. Comparison Question Test
The Comparison Question Test was originated from Reid
Control Question Technique. It was developed by Dr. David
Raskin in 1970s. This technique uses relevant questions that
specifically referring to the crime and comparison questions
that are the same in the nature of the crime but unrelated by
time, place or category. Comparison question is believed to
produce stronger reaction than the relevant questions on
innocent examinee. Adversely, guilty subject will react
strongly on the relevant questions. The theory of Comparison
Question Test suggest that there are changes in measured
physiology load on one group of questions or the other, as a
function of deception ot truth - telling to the relevant
m. Early Studies about Computerized Polygraph
Dr. Joseph F. Kubis of Fordham University was credited
for his idea about the computerization of polygraph. His
research work entitled Studies in Lie Detection, Computer
Feasibility Considerations was completed in 1962. Dr.
Kubis experiments include monitoring the cardiovascular,
respiratory, and galvanic skin response.
n. Arther II Polygraph and Arther Specific - Accusation Test
Richard O. Arther, Director of National Training Center for
Lie Detection, was the first polygraph examiner to record two
pneumograph tracings. In 1965, he introduced the Arther II
polygraph manufactured by Stoelting consisting stimulus
marker designed to record stimulus marker designed to record
the time when the question was asked and answered. Arther
was also the first to record two galvanic skin response set in
self centering and floating mode. He suggested that automatic
or self centering mode is better than manual mode. Arther
designed a polygraph technique which include behavior
analysis in the interpretation of polygraph data.
o. Guilty Knowledge Test
Dr. David T. Lykken, professor at University of Minnesota
Medical School developed and introduced the Guilty Knowledge Test
in 1960.

p. American Polygraph Association (APA)

The American Polygraph Association was established in 1966.
Membership is composed of polygraph professionals from law
enforcement, government and private sector. The association was
formed by merger of several polygraph associations including the
Academy of Scientific Interrogation, American Academy of
Polygraph Examiners, National Board of Polygraph Examiners and
International Association of Polygraph Examiners.
q. Electronic Analog Polygraph
The analog polygraph had evolved from mechanical channel to
electronic component. In 1974, Stoelting introduced the polyscribe, an
all - electronic polygraph instrument with multi - function capability. In
1979, the Ultra - Scribe was introduced replacing the polyscribe. This
new model has the capability to record simultaneously the heartbeat,
pulse rate and strength, and changes in blood pressure using both
conventional arm cuff and CAM. The electronic enhancement enable
the examiner to adjust the amplitude of tracings. The Lafayette
Instrument Company also introduced their electronic polygraph
instrument. In 1984, Lafayette made modification by adding an auto
base response circuit designed to increase the amount of baseline
amplification at lower sensitivity settings. Lafayette introduced the
Factfinder model using 10 inches chart available in 3, 4, or 5 channels.
r. Department of Defense Polygraph Institute (DoDPI)
The creation of DoDPI was rooted from the US Army Military
Police School (USAMPS). Dr. William J. Yankee was appointed as
the first director. DoDPI was renamed Defense Academy for
Credibility Assessment. DACA was named National Center for
Credibility Assessment in 2010.

s. Army Modified General Question Test

The Department of Defense Polygraph Institute designed a
polygraph technique for multi-facet polygraph testing. This technique
is a modification of the General Question Test of John Reid. The
analysis is though numerical evaluation unlike with the Reid
techniques that is clinical approach.
t. Employee Polygraph Protection Act
In 1988, the Employee Polygraph Protection Act (EPPA)
was enacted in the United States. Prior to the enactment of
EPPA, polygraph is administered on job applicant
screening, periodic employee testing, and investigation of
specific cases in private sectors. The growing complaints
raised against the abused on the use of polygraph leads to
the creation of EPPA. Membership of the American
Polygraph Association was greatly affected by this Act.
u. Computerized Polygraph
Drs. David Raskin and John Kircher developed the first
US made computerized polygraph system (CPS). The CPS
was introduced into the market by Stoelting Company in
1991. Its algorithm was developed at the University of Utah
by Scientific Assessment Technology base from several
years of extensive research. CPS algorithm analyzed the
physiological changes measured from respiration, skin
conductance/skin response, cardio, and finger pulse and
reports the probability of truthful or deceptive results.
Quiz # 5

Write your answer in a one whole sheet of yellow paper.

Quiz #5 to be passed when on-site class is conducted.

1. Choose three (3) contributions to the development of the

polygraph machine that you believe are most important to
polygraph examination. Elaborate your answer.

2. Of all the polygraph techniques mentioned in the

previous lesson, which do you think is efficient and
convenient?