prenatal development

 
• Stages of Prenatal Development

• Conception
• Germinal
• Embryonic
• Fetal
 Conception

• Conception
“the combining of the
genetic material
from a male gamete
(sperm) and a
female gamete
(ovum)
 Conception
• Conception occurs when a sperm cell
penetrates and fertilizes an egg cell
• Successful conception depends on
– ovaries releasing one healthy egg cell
– egg cell migrates most of the way down the
fallopian tube
– One sperm must penetrate the ovum to form a
zygote
 Stage of prenatal development

Stages of prenatal
development

Germinal period Embryonic period Fetal period

3rd week to 8th week

Conception to two weeks 8th week to birth
 Prenatal Development

• Germinal (2 weeks)
– Begins with conception.
– Takes place in one of the fallopian tubes.
– Zygote travels to the uterus and attaches
itself to the uterine wall.
– Rapid cell division occurs
– Once the zygote is successfully attached
the germinal stage is over.
 Twins
• Dizygotic or fraternal twins occur when two
separate eggs are ovulated. May be of
different sexes.
• Monozygotic or identical twins occur when a
single egg is fertilized but dividing cells break
into two groups and develop into two
individuals. Genetically identical (clones)
• Zygote undergoes rapid mitotic cell division,
but these do not increase the size of the
zygote – called cleavage divisions
• Cleavage produces a solid sphere of cells, still
surrounded by zona pellucida – now called a
morula.
• At 4.5 to 5 days, cells have developed into a
hollow ball of cells – blastocyst.
• It is at this stage that it enters the uterus.
 Parts of the Zygote
• Blastocyst: inner layer of cells that
develops during the germinal period
– Later develops into embryo

• Trophoblast: outer layer of cells that

develops during germinal period
– Provides embryo nutrition and support
 Implantation
• The blastocyst remains free in the uterus a short
time,
• during which the zona pellucida disintegrates.
• Blastocyst nourished by glycogen from glands of the
endometrium.
• At about 6 days after ovulation blastocyst implants
– orients cell mass toward endometrium, and
secretes enzymes which allow it to penetrate
(digest) the endometrial wall. This nourishes the
blastocyst for about a week after implantation.
• Implantation can also occur in uterine tube,
cervix, or the abdominal cavity.

• Implantation anywhere outside the uterus is

called an ectopic pregnancy.
• It is possible for fetus to grow in the
abdominal cavity, but growth inside the
uterine tube causes the tube to rupture,
resulting in severe bleeding.
• As early as 8 -12 days after fertilization, the
blastocyst begins to secrete human chorionic
gonadotropin or hCG.
• hCG keeps the corpus luteum active until the
placenta can produce estrogens and
progesterone.
• The presence of hCG is the basis for
pregnancy tests.
 AMNIOTIC FLUID
• Clear, yellowish fluid surrounding the
developing fetus.
• Average amount 1000 ml.
• Having < 300ml – Oligohydramnios, associated
with fetal renal abnormalities.
• Having > 2 L – Hydramnios, associated with GI
and other malformations.
 AMNIOTIC FLUID
• Protects Fetus
• Controls Temperature
• Supports Symmetrical Growth
• Prevents Adherence to amnion
• Allows Movement
• Source of oral fluid
• Acts as a excretion-collection repository
 UMBILICAL CORD
Connecting link between fetus and placenta.
• Transports oxygen and nutrients to fetus from the
placenta and returns waste products from the fetus
to the placenta.
• Contains: 2 arteries and 1 vein supported by mucoid
material (wharton’s jelly) to prevent kinking and
knotting.
• Contains NO pain receptors.
 PLACENTA
Produce protein hormones:
• Human chorionic gonadotrophin (HCG)- 8-10
days past conception, is basis for pregnancy
test
• Progesterone
• Estrogen
• Human Placental Lactogen
 PLACENTA
• Sieve/filter – allows smaller particles through
and holds back larger molecules. Passage of
materials in either direction is effected by:
– Diffusion: gases, water, electrolytes
– Facilitated transfer: glucose, amino acids,
minerals.
– Pinocytosis: movement of minute particle
 PLACENTA
• Mother transmits immunoglobulin G (IgG) to
fetus providing limited passive immunity.
• Leakage: caused by membrane defect: may
allow maternal and fetal blood mixing.
 Prenatal Development
• Embryonic (3 to 8 weeks)
– Developing embryo forms all the major body systems,
organs, and structures.
– Lasts from the beginning of week 3 through week 8.
– Begins when the zygote attaches itself to the uterine wall.
– Ends when the first bone cells form.
– 1 inch long and weighs 1/7 of an ounce.
– Embryo already a human being.
 The Embryonic Period

• Two to eight weeks after conception

– Rate of cell differentiation intensifies
– Support systems for cells form
– Organogenesis: organ formation
– Embryo has three layers of cells
 Parts of the Embryo

• Endoderm: inner layer of cells form digestive and

respiratory systems
• Ectoderm: outermost layer of cells form skin
parts, nervous system, and sensory receptors
• Mesoderm: middle layer of cells form bones,
circulatory system, muscles, excretory and
reproductive systems
 Embryo’s
Life-Support System

• Placenta: intertwines but does

not join mother and baby
• Umbilical cord: connects baby to
placenta
• Amnion and amniotic fluid:
provides baby’s environment
What Is the Course of Prenatal Development?

The Placenta and the Umbilical Cord

Uterus
Umbilical
vein
Umbilical
cord

Placent Umbilical
a arteries

Fetal Maternal
portion of portion of
Fig. 3.2 placenta placenta
5week old embryo
 Prenatal Development
• Fetal (3 to birth)
– Lasts from week 9 (when first bone cells form)
until birth.
– Experiences rapid growth and further
development of body structures,
organs, and systems.
Fingers, toes, skin, features, lungs, other structures,
and reflexes all develop to prepare for birth
3 to 4 months old fetus
6 months old fetus
 19 inches First
Third About 16.5- long,
18 inches weighs 6 trimester
trimester

36 to 38 weeks
long, pounds begins
begins
weighs 4 to

ks
5 pounds
The three

w
trimesters

4
weeks
32

to
About 14-17 of prenatal

n
inches long, Less than development

tio
weighs 2.5 1/10th of

ep
28 ek
to 3 pounds an inch
we

nc
long

Co
s

24 wee s
About 11-14
k s 8 week
Less than
inches long, 1 inch
weighs 1 to 12 long
ks
s
1.5 pounds e we
e
eek

w e ks
20
16 w

About 10-12 About 3

inches long, inches long,
weighs 1/2 weighs
to 1 pound About 5.5 about 1
inches long, ounce
weighs
about 4
ounces Second trimester begins
 The Brain

• At birth – 100 billion neurons

• Basic architecture assembled during
first two trimesters
– Neural tube: first 18–24 days
– Neurogenesis
– Neuronal migration: 4–6 weeks after
conception
 Nutrition and Weight Gain

• Nutrition
– Need for protein, iron, vitamin D,
calcium, phosphorus, magnesium
increases 50 percent, water is
essential

• Weight Gain
– 25 to 35 pounds associated with best
reproductive outcomes
 Prenatal Hazards

• Teratogens are environmental substances

that can cause birth defects in the developing
fetus
– Maternal alcohol use leads to fetal alcohol
syndrome (facial defects, low IQ,neurobehavioral
defects)
– Nicotine exposure leads to premature birth, low
birth weight, and more fetal deaths
– These drugs cross the placental barrier and impair
fetal brain development
 Teratogen

• Teratogen
– Any agent that causes a birth defect
– About half of potential effects appear at birth
• Severity and type of defect affected by
– Dose
– Genetic susceptibility
– Time of exposure
• Poor maternal nutrition can impair fetal development
• Drug use by father can damage sperm
– Alcohol, opiates, cocaine, lead, and various gases are known to
damage sperm
 Prenatal Hazards
• Maternal experiences and stress
Stress increase activity of adrenal gland, entered
in mother blood, through placenta passes to
the child .
 Psycho teratology
• The study of the harmful effects of teratogens
through the behavioural measures .
Prescription and Nonprescription
Drugs

• Prescriptions given during pregnancy

– Antibiotics, analgesics, asthma medications
– 1961: thalidomide tragedy
• All drugs (prescribed, illegal) can have
effects on unborn fetus
 Teratogens and Timing of Their Effects
on Prenatal Development

Zygote Embryonic period (wks) Fetal Period

(wks)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 16 32 38
Central nervous system
Most Heart
serious
damage Arms
from Eyes
teratogens Legs
in first 2–8
weeks Ears
Teeth
Period of Palate
susceptibility to
structural defects External genitalia
Period of
susceptibility to
functional defects
Fig. 3.8 (modified)
 Psychoactive Drugs

• Psychoactive drugs
– Act on nervous system and change moods
– Alter states of conscious and modify
perceptions
– Extent of risk and harm varies
 Psychoactive Drugs

• Caffeine and nicotine

• Alcohol – Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS)
• Cocaine and heroin
• Methamphetamine and marijuana
Incompatible Blood Types

• Between mother and father

• Between mother and baby
– Blood group (A, B, O, AB)
– Rh factor (positive, negative)
– Vaccine within 3 days of birth
 Environmental Hazards

• Father’s exposure to lead, radiation

• X-ray radiation
• Pollutants and toxin wastes
• Fertilizers and pesticides
• Lead-based paints
• Petrochemicals
 Maternal Diseases

• Diseases and infections cross the

placenta barrier
– Rubella
– Diabetes
• Sexually transmitted infections
– Syphilis
– Genital herpes
– AIDS, HIV infection
 Other Maternal Factors

• Maternal diet and nutrition

– Folic acid and iron
– Fish: PCBs and mercury levels
• Maternal age
– Highest risks: adolescents, over 35 years
• Maternal emotional states
 Other Paternal Factors

• Father’s diet and low vitamin C

• Drug use effects on sperm
• Smoking during pregnancy – effects of
second-hand smoke
• Father’s age at conception
 Embryonic period (in weeks) Fetal period (in weeks) Full term
3 4 5 6 7 8 12 16 20 36 38
Brain
Central
nervous Eye
system Heart Ear Palate Ear

Eye

Arm
Heart Leg Teeth External genitalia
Central nervous system
Heart
Arms
Eyes
Legs
Teeth
Palate
External genitalia
Ear

Period when major Period when minor defect or

abnormality occurs abnormality occurs
 Recommended Book

• Life span development

By
John W.Santrock (2009)12th edition
McGRAW HILL INTERNATIONA EDITION
ISBN # 978-0-07-128083-9