Mizan Tepi University

College of Natural and Computational

Science
Department of Biology
General Biology (Biol.1012 )
Lecture Note
2021

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 Introduction

1.1. The meaning and scope of biology

 Biological Sciences is the study of life and living organisms.

 Two Greek words

 ‘bio’ means life and
‘logos’ means study of.

 It is concerned with the:

o How life came into existence and
o What relation they possess with each other and their
environments?
o Generally, Biology is the scienceMTU
4/18/23 09:07:37 AM
of Living Things (Life Science). 2
 1.2. The origin and nature of life
“what is life?”

To answer this ,need to understand origin of life.

Following are some of them:

1.Theory of Special Creation:

 all the different forms of life that occur have been created by
God/Allah , the almighty.
2.Theory of Spontaneous Generation: assume
 Living organisms could arise from any kind of non-living matter.

 One of the firm believers this theory was Aristotle

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3. Theory of Catastrophism (The Bing-Bang Theory) :
 It states that each life preceded by a catastrophe resulting from
some kind of geological disturbance.
4. Cosmozoic Theory (Theory of Panspermia /spore theory):
 According to this theory, life has reached this planet Earth from
other heavenly bodies such as meteorites, in the form of highly
resistance spores of some organisms.
 This idea was proposed by Richter in 1865 and supported by
Arrhenius (1908) and other contemporary scientists.
 The theory did not gain any support due to lack of evidence, hence
it was discarded.
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 Cont….

5. Theory of Chemical Evolution /Modern theory:

 This theory is also known as Materialistic or Physico-chemical
Theory.
 According to this theory,
Origin of life on earth is the result of a slow and gradual
process of chemical evolution that probably occurred
about 3.8 bill y/rs ago.
 This theory was proposed independently by two scientists
 Oparin, a Russian scientist in 1923 and
Haldane, an English scientist, in 1928.

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 Cont…..
 It has made following assumptions:
1. Spontaneous generation of life under the present environment is not
possible.
2. Earth’s atmosphere ~1 billion years is very different from the
current conditions.
3. Primitive earth’s atmosphere was reducing in nature.
4. The chemical molecules (inorganic molecules) react with each other
through a series of reactions to form organic substances and other
complex bio molecules.
5. The solar energy and UV radiation provided the energy for the
chemical reactions.

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6. THEORY OF ETERNITY OF LIFE:
 This theory assumes that life had no beginning or end.
 It believes that life has ever been in existence and it will continue to
be so ever.
 It further believe that there is no question of origin of life as it has no
beginning or end.
 The theory is also known as steady state theory.
Nature and characteristics of life
 Life is defined as a "condition" that distinguishes animals and plants
from inorganic materials and dead organisms.
 Life is comprised of processes and is a maintained state.

 The most sophisticated form of life is man

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 Man demonstrates three lives or aspects of life:

i. Life of the body (physical) - is basic existence

ii. Life of the mind – contributes effectiveness and scope

iii. Life of the spirit - contributes maximum living

Living tissues and organisms exhibit:
 Irritability
 Growth & reproduction
 Adaptability
 Metabolism
 Excretion and Osmoregulation
In plant cells the major excretory products are Oxygen from
photosynthesis and CO2 from cell respiration.

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 1.3. Scientific methods

The scientific method is a process for experimentation

-used to explore observations & answer questions.
It is an empirical method of acquiring knowledge.
 It is also the technique used in the construction and testing of a
scientific hypothesis.
The scientific method has five basic steps, plus one feedback
step:
i. Make an observation.
ii. Ask a question.
iii. Form a hypothesis, or testable explanation.
iv. Make a prediction based on the hypothesis.
v. Test the prediction.
vi. Iterate: use the results to make new hypotheses or predictions.
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 Observation - Quantitative & qualitative measurements of the
world.
 Inference - Deriving new knowledge based upon old
knowledge.
 Hypotheses –A suggested explanation.
o Rejected Hypothesis - An explanation that has been ruled
out through experimentation.
o Accepted Hypothesis - An explanation that has not been
ruled out through excessive experimentation and makes
verifiable predictions that are true.
 Experiment - A test that is used to rule out a hypothesis or
validate something already known.

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 Scientific Method - The process of scientific investigation.
 Theory - A widely accepted hypothesis that stands the test of time.
 Often tested, and usually never rejected.
 The scientific method is based primarily on the testing of
hypotheses by experimentation.
 This involves a control, or subject that does not undergo the
process in question.
 A scientist will also seek to limit variables to one or another very
small number, single or minimum number of variables.
 The procedure is to form a hypothesis or prediction about what you
believe or expect to see & then do everything you can to violate
that, or falsify the hypotheses.
 Although this may seem unintuitive, the process serves to establish
more firmly what is and what is not true.

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 2. Biological Molecules

Biological molecules are often referred to as the molecules of life (bio-

molecules)
o Such as: organic and inorganic molecules.
Organic bio-molecules includes :
 Carbohydrates
 Lipids
 Proteins &
 Nucleic acids

They are important either structurally or functionally for cells and, in

most cases, they are important in both ways.
Inorganic molecules includes :
o Water &

12 o Minerals
 2.1.Carbohydrates (“hydrate of water)
• Consist of carbon, hydrogen and
oxygen with a ratio of 1:2:1,
• General formula (CH2O)n, n  3.
• Function:
glucose
1. Mediating interactions among and C6H12O6
with in cells(Glycoprotein)
2. Quick energy or fuels (glucose) sucrose
3. Metabolic intermediate (Pyruvate)

4. Energy storage (Starches, glycogen)

5. Structure (cellulose)
• cell wall in plants starch 13
• Carbohydrates found in the form of either a sugar
or many sugars linked together, called saccharides.
• The word “saccharide” is derived from the Greek
sakcharon, meaning “sugar”).
• Based on the number sugar units they contain,they
categorized into three
1. Monosaccharides, simple sugars most abundant
in nature is the six-carbon sugar D-glucose
2. Disaccharides with two monosaccharide units
joined by Glycosidic bond.
3. Polysaccharides are polymers containing more
than 2 monosaccharide units, and some have
hundreds or thousands of units.
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 2.1.1 Monosaccharide's are simple sugars
• The most common monosaccharides are (Glucose,
Galactose, Fructose)
 The basic units of carbohydrates
• Typically contain from three to seven carbon atoms.
• Are aldehyde or ketone derivatives of polyhydroxy alcohols
• Cannot be hydrolyzed to form simpler saccharides.
• Monosaccharides are classified according to:
1. Chemical nature of
their carbonyl group
a. Aldose: Glucose,
Galactose,
b. Ketose : Fructose
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2. The number of Name Formula
their C atoms Triose C 3 H6 O3
Tetrose C 4 H8 O4
Pentose C 5 H1 0 O 5
Hexose C 6 H1 2 O 6
Heptose C 7 H1 4 O 7
Octose C 8 H1 6 O 8

3. OH- attachments position on chiral carbon atom

a) D sugars, the OH
attached to the right.
b) L sugars, OH points

to the left.
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• Glucose (C6H12O6), the most abundant monosaccharide,
which used as an energy source in most organisms.
• Glucose and fructose are structural isomers
• Monosaccharaides exist in two forms:

i. Straight chain form

ii. Ring form ( and  )

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H
OH

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2.1.2. Disaccharides(Sucrose,Lactose,Maltose)
• Formed by condensation rxn b/n 2 monosaccharides with
special type of covalent bonds known as Glycosidic bond
• All are isomers with molecular formula C12H22O12.
• On hydrolysis they yield 2 monosaccharide.

• Soluble in water
• There are 3 main disaccharides:

1. Sucrose= sugar in cane

2. Lactose=sugar in milk

3. Maltose=sugar in malt
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1. Sucrose (common table sugar) =fructose + glucose

• Is obtained commercially from cane or beet.

• The anomeric carbon atoms of a glucose unit and a
fructose unit are joined..
• In this disaccharide;

the configuration of

this glycosidic linkage

is α for glucose
and ß for fructose. 20
2. Lactose =Galactose + Glucose
• The disaccharide of milk, consists of galactose joined to
glucose by a ß, α-1,4-glycosidic linkage.

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3. Maltose= Glucose +Glucose
• Two glucose units are joined by an α-1,4 glycosidic linkage.

• Maltose comes from the hydrolysis of starch and is in turn

hydrolyzed to glucose by maltase.

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• Summary on structure of Disaccaraides

Sucrose =fructose + glucose Lactose =Galactose + Glucose

Maltose= Glucose +Glucose

1.Storage function
 Glycogen and starch
2. Structural function
Cellulose and chitin
 POLYSACCHARIDES

STORAGE FUNCTION
STRUTURAL
1. Starch
3. Cellulose
– energy storage in
–structure in plants
plants
»cell walls
» potatoes
4. Chitin
2. Glycogen
–structure in
– energy storage in
arthropods & fungi
animals
»exoskeleton
– in liver 25
 1. Starch
• Used for energy storage in plants.
• Is a polymer of -glucose subunits ( 1-4 and  1-6 linkages)

• Starch occurs in two forms:

A. Amylose
• The simpler form, is unbranched and
• Many glucose subunits joined by  1-4 linkages.

B. Amylopectin
 The more complex form, branched.

 Usually consists of about 1000 glucose units which joined by

 1-4 linkages and  1-6 linkages. 26
 STARCH=
AMYLOSE (80%)
+
AMYLOPECTINE
(20%)

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 2. Glycogen
• Used for energy storage for animals

• Similar in structure to but Glycogen is usually more

branched than starch (which allows to be cleaved easily).
• Made from Amylopectin (80%) and Amylose (20%).

• Therefore glycogen, which is the main glucose polymer in

higher organisms, can give a greater rate of supply of glucose
in demand situations than starch, which exists in plants only.
• Animals and humans have more glucose quicker at their
demand than plants
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• Glycogen does not occur in heart and brain cells.

• It occurs mainly in liver and muscle cells, but only the liver
can convert lactate to glucose.
• Glycogen has no structural support function in higher
organisms and therefore can be broken down without affecting
their structure.
• Glycogen stores in the liver form

an ideal energy supply for the organism.

• However, human glycogen stores

are estimated to be depleted after 10-15 hours of fasting and

therefore need constant replenishing.
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Provides plants with a rigid cell wall
consisting of layers of cellulose fibers that
are held together by hydrogen bonds

30
 4. Chitin
• The structural component of
invertebrate exoskeletons found

in insects and crustaceans

• Linked by a β1-4 glycosidic bond
• Chitin, like cellulose, provides

the organism with an excellent

biomaterial for building a strong

body frame.

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 2.2. Lipids
• Lipids are a heterogeneous group of compounds.
• They consist mainly of carbon and hydrogen, with few
oxygen-containing functional groups.
• Lipids are mainly insoluble in water and soluble in organic
solvents (such as ether and chloroform).
Functions
1. As Storage function (fatty acids, oils, triacylglycerols, waxes)
2. As Structural function (Phospholipids, glycolipids, sterols)
3. As Signaling and Cofactor function ( Steroid hormones)
4. As Pigment function (Carotenoids)

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 2.2. 1. Triacylglycerol, the main storage
lipid
• The triacylglycerols most abundant lipids in living
organisms commonly known as fats.
• Because it contains three fatty acids, a fat molecule is
called a triglyceride.
• A triacylglycerol consists:

1. Glycerol, a three-carbon alcohol that contains three

hydroxyl ( ￢ OH) groups, and
2. 3 Fatty acid chain, a long, unbranched hydrocarbon
chain with a carboxyl group ( ￢ COOH) at one end.
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• The glycerol’s hydroxyl groups reacts with the
carboxyl group of a fatty acid
• By the formation of a covalent linkage known as an
ester bond
• There are 2 types of Fatty Acids

A. Saturated fatty acids

 Contain the maximum possible number of hydrogen
atoms
 Form single C-C bond
 Tend to be solid at room temperature.
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35
B. Unsaturated fatty acids
 One or more adjacent pairs of carbon atoms joined by a
double bond
 Therefore, they are not fully saturated with hydrogen.

I. Mono unsaturated fatty acids,

 Fatty acids with one double bond

II. Poly unsaturated fatty acids

 FA with more than one double bond

 Liquid at room temperature.

• B/C each double bond produces a bend in the hydrocarbon

chain that prevents it from aligning closely
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37
• Food manufacturers commonly hydrogenate or partially

hydrogenate cooking oils to make margarine and other

foodstuffs, converting unsaturated fatty acids to

saturated fatty acids and making the fat more solid at

room temperature.

• This process makes the fat less healthful because

saturated fatty acids in the diet are known to increase the

risk of cardiovascular disease

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2.3.Protein
is a compound made of small carbon compounds called amino
acids
Amino acids are small compounds that are made of carbon,
nitrogen, oxygen, hydrogen, and sometimes sulfur
All amino acids share the same general structure.
They have central carbon atom with four
covalent bonds.
 2.3. 1.Proteins are built from a collection of 20 amino acids

• Amino acids (monomers) are the building blocks of proteins (polymer).

• An amino acid consists of:

1. A central carbon atom, called the α-carbon,
2. An amino group (-NH+3)
3. A carboxylic acid group (-COO),
4. A hydrogen atom (H), and
5. A distinctive R group (the side chain).

• Only L amino acids are found in proteins which found in our body.
 Essential and Non-Essential Amino Acids

• Essential amino acids are 10 amino acids not

synthesized by the body and must be
consumed from proteins in the diet.
• Table- Essential amino acids
Arginine(Arg)* Methionone(Met) Leucine(Leu)

Histidine(His)* Phenylalanine(Phe) Lysine(Lys)

Isoleucine(Ile) Threonine(Thr) Tryptophan(Trp)

Valine(Val)
 2.3.2 Levels of structure in proteins

• The linear sequence of amino acid residues in a polypeptide

chain determines the three dimensional configuration of a
protein.
• The structure of a protein determines its function.
• Generally there are four generally recognized levels of protein
structure:
1. Primary structure
2. Secondary structure

3. Tertiary structure
4. Quaternary structure
 1. Primary Structure: Amino acids are linked by
peptide bonds to form polypeptide chains

• Consists of a liner sequence of amino acids linked together by

peptide bonds and includes any disulfide bonds.
• These liner sequence of amino acids in a peptide is
characteristic of that protein.

• It determine other structure.

 2. Secondary Structure: Polypeptide Chains Can Fold into
Regular Structures (Alpha Helix and Beta Sheet)

• Two major secondary structure are α- helix and ß-strand.

1. α- helix
 Polypeptide chain twists into tightly packed rod.

• Within the helix, the COO- group of each amino acid is hydrogen
bonded to the NH group of the amino acid four residues along the
polypeptide chain.
• Generally, the alpha helix is a coiled structure stabilized by intra-
chain (the same chain) hydrogen bonds.
Figure: Alpha helix structure of proteins
2. ß-strand
 The polypeptide chain is nearly fully extended.

• Two or more strands connected by NH-to-CO hydrogen bonds

come together to form sheets.
• A β sheet is formed by linking two or more β strands by
hydrogen bonds.
• β sheets can be purely antiparallel, purely parallel, or mixed
• Generally, Beta sheets are stabilized by hydrogen bonding
between polypeptide strands
Figure: Beta sheet structure of proteins
 Tertiary Structure of proteins
• It3.defines
TertiarytheStructure:: Water-soluble
overall folding proteins fold
of a polypeptide in to and
chain
stabilizedcompact
by (Globular vs Fibrous
structures proteins):
with non-polar cores.tt
1. Ionic bond (between NH3+ and COO-),
2. Weak van der Waals forces,
3. Hydrogen bonding,
4. Hydrophobic interactions and
5. Disulphide (-SS-) bridges b/n -SH groups of cysteine
• In the polypeptide chain hydrophobic side chains are buried
and its polar, charged chains are on the surface.
• Generally, water-soluble proteins fold into compact structures
with nonpolar cores.
49
Figure: Tertiary structure of proteins. 50
4. Quaternary Structure: Polypeptide chains can assemble into multi
subunit structures.

• Proteins consisting of more than one polypeptide chain and

each individual polypeptide chain is called a subunit.

• Quaternary structure can be as simple as two identical

subunits or as complex as dozens of different subunits.

• In most cases, the subunits are held together by non-

covalent bonds.

• Generally, polypeptide chains can assemble into multi-

subunit structures.

51
Figure: Quaternary structure (hemoglobin) of proteins
52
53
Table: Summary of Protein Structural

54
 2.4.Nucleic Acid

• Genetic information is encoded by molecules called nucleic acids.

• There are two related types of nucleic acid, deoxyribonucleic acid
(DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA).
• The master copy of each cell’s genome is stored on long molecules
of DNA, which may each contain many thousands of genes.
• In contrast, RNA molecules are much shorter, are used to transmit
the genetic information to the cell machinery, and carry only one or
a few genes.
2.4.1. Chemical Structure of Nucleic Acids
• DNA and RNA are linear polymers made of subunits known as
nucleotides.
• Each nucleotide has three components:
• a phosphate group,
• a five-carbon sugar, and
• a nitrogen-containing base.
• The phosphate groups and the sugars form the backbone of
each strand of DNA or RNA.
• In DNA, the sugar is always deoxyribose.
• Whereas, in RNA, the sugar is ribose. Both sugars are
pentoses, or five-carbon sugars.
• There are four d/f nitrogenous bases in each type of nucleic
acid and their order determines the genetic information.
• Deoxyribose has one less oxygen than ribose.
• It is this chemical difference that gave rise to the names
deoxyribonucleic acid and ribonucleic acid.
• Both sugars have five-membered rings consisting of four
carbon atoms and an oxygen.
• The fifth carbon forms a side chain to the ring.
• The five carbon atoms of the sugar are numbered 1’, 2’, 3’, 4’
and 5’.
• Nucleotides are joined by linking the phosphate on 5’-carbon
of the (deoxy) ribose of one nucleotide to the 3’-position of
the next.
 The phosphate group is joined to the sugar on either side by
ester linkages, and the overall structure is therefore a
phosphodiester linkage.
 The phosphate group linking the sugars has a negative
charge.
• There are five different types of nitrogenous bases associated
with nucleotides.
• DNA contains the bases adenine, guanine, cytosine and thymine.
• These are often abbreviated to A, G, C and T, respectively.
• RNA contains A, G and C, but T is replaced by uracil (U).
• T in DNA and U in RNA are equivalent.
• The bases found in nucleic acids are of two types, pyrimidines
and purines.
• The smaller pyrimidine bases contain a single ring where as the
purines have a fused double ring.
• thymine,uracil and cytosine (CUT) are pyrimidines; and
• Adenine and guanine are purines
 2.3.2. The difference between RNA and DNA

1. The sugar in RNA is ribose but DNA contain the

sugar deoxyribose
2. DNA contain thymine where as RNA contains the
ribonucleotide of uracil.
3. RNA typically exists as a single strand, whereas
DNA exists as a double-stranded helical molecule.
4. DNA is more stable than RNA.
 2.5 water (H2O)

• Water is a major chemical component of life in earth surface.

• It constitute 65-90 % of biological life including us.

Structure of water
 Two hydrogen atom linked covalently by formation of H-
bond to one atom of oxygen.
 Each share an electron pair to give non liner (V-shape)
arrangement and permit its polar characteristics.
 This H-bond gives unusual or unique properties for water
molecule.

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66
 UNIQUE PROPERTIES OF WATER

1. Water acts as a biological solvent

2. Water have high specific heat capacity

3. Water have high surface tension

4. Solid state of water has low density than its liquid state

5. Water have high latent of vaporization

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2.7. Minerals
 used by the body as building material, and they are involved with
metabolic functions.
 For example, the mineral iron is needed to make hemoglobin and it
binds to hemoglobin in RBC and is delivered to body cells as blood
circulates in the body.
 Calcium, and other minerals, is an important component of bones and
is involved with muscle and nerve functions and they serve as
cofactors for enzymes.
 Magnesium is an important component of the green pigment,
chlorophyll, involved in photosynthesis.

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 Summary of Unit Two
• Carbon compounds are the basic building blocks of living
organisms.
• Biological molecules are formed by joining of small
carbon compounds into polymers.
• There are four types of biological macromolecules;
carbohydrates, proteins, lipids and nucleic acids
• Monosaccharides undergo condensation to form
disaccharides and polysaccharides through the glycosidic
linkages
• Peptide bonds join amino acids in proteins.
• Lipids are esters of fatty acids and alcohols
• Chains of nucleotides form nucleic acids.
 Unit three
3. The cellular basis of life
 Robert Hook was the first to observe plant cells with a
simple microscope.
 M. Schleiden and T.Schwann proposed that all living things
are composed of cells
3.1. The cell theory
 A cell is the basic structural and functional unit of living
organisms.
 The activity of an organism depends on both the individual
and the collective activities of its cells.
 All cells arise from pre-existing cells (continuity of life
from one generation to another has a cellular basis).

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A typical eukaryotic cell has 3 major parts:
 plasma membrane-the outer boundary of the cell
 Cytoplasm-small structures that perform specific cell
functions
 Nucleus-an organelle that controls cellular activities
 3.2. Cell organelles

 An organelle is a specialized subunit within a cell that has

a specific function.
 These organelles are found in the cytoplasm
 In eukaryotes an organelle is a membrane bound
structure found within a cell.
 In Prokaryotes are cells that do not have membrane
bound organelles.
 basis membrane covering there are two kinds of cell
organelles :
 membranous and
non membranous organelles.

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 Cont…
Endoplasmic reticulum
 (Rough and Smooth)
Golgi bodies
mitochondria
chloroplasts membranous
nucleus
lysosomes
peroxisomes and
vacuoles

ribosomes (70S and 80S)

centrosomes
cilia and flagella non-membrane bound microtubules
basal bodies and
microfilaments

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Structure and function of organelles
 Structure and function of organelles
The nucleus:
is oval or spherically shaped largest central structure surrounded by a
double-layered membrane
The nucleus is the round object in the cell that holds the genetic
information (DNA) of the cell.
It is surrounded by a nuclear envelope and has a nucleolus inside.
The nuclear envelope is a double-layered plasma membrane like the cell
membrane, although without membrane proteins.
To allow some chemicals to enter the nucleus, the nuclear
envelope has structures called Nuclear pores.
The nuclear envelope is continuous with the endoplasmic reticulum.

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 Cont….

 Inside nucleus there is nucleolus

 The nucleolus appears in a microscope as a small dark area

within the nucleus.
 The nucleolus is the area where there is a high amount of
DNA transcription taking place.
 Chromosomes consist of chromatin.

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09:07:39 AM
4/18/23 09:07:39 AM MTU 78
 The Cytoplasm:
complex jelly – like marrow called the ‘cytosol’.
All cells contain six main types of organelles-
 the endoplasmic reticulum,
 Golgi complex,
 lysosomes,
 peroxisomes,
 mitochondria,
 vacules.

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 1.Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)

 ER is a fluid-filled membrane present throughout the cytosol.

 ER is one continuous organelle with many communicating channels.

 The two different types:-1rough ER 2,smooth ER

 rough ER projects outwards from the reticulum as stacks of

flattened sacs.
 But smooth ER is a meshwork of interconnected tubules
 The rough Endoplasmic Reticulum:

 The outer surface of the rough ER contains ribosomes

 The rough ER in association with ribosomes produces and releases a

variety of proteins (hormones or enzymes).

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 Smooth ER: site of lipid synthesis

 Since it does not have ribosomes, it looks smooth

and does not produce proteins.
 Smooth endoplasmic reticulum produces enzymes for
lipid and carbohydrate biosynthesis
o The smooth ER is well developed in cells specialized
in lipid metabolism- cells that synthesize steroid
hormones.
o In addition to this smooth ER plays a major role
 In liver cells-by detoxifying harmful substances

 In skeletal muscle cells-process of muscle contraction

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 Cont….

Structure of ER
82
 2.The Golgi Complex:

• Is elaborately associated with the ER

• It contains sets of flattened, curved, membrane-
enclosed sacs, or cisternae, stacked in layers.
• It performs the following important functions
 Processing the raw material into finished products like
proteins
 Sorting and directing finished product to their final
destination
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 3. Lysosomes:

♣ Serve as the intracellular “digestive system”.

♣ containing powerful hydrolytic enzymes capable of digesting
and removing unwanted cellular debris and foreign materials
such as bacteria
♣ Extrinsic material brought into the interior of the cell through
the process of endocytosis
 If the fluid is internalized by endocytosis, the process is called
pinocytosis
 Endocytosis is also accomplished by phagocytosis
 4.Peroxisome:
 Is a membrane enclosed sacs containing oxidative
enzymes and catalase that detoxify various wastes.
 The major product generated is H2O2; hydrogen
peroxide itself is a powerful oxidant
 It also contains catalase, and antioxidant enzyme
decomposing H2O2 into harmless water and oxygen.
 This reaction is an important safety reaction that
destroys deadly H2O2, at the site of production,
thereby preventing possible devastating escape into
the cytosol.
 Peroximal disorders disrupt the normal processing
of lipids and can severely disrupt the normal
function of the nervous system by altering the
structure of the nerve cell membrane
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 5.Ribosomes

 Ribosomes are the site of protein synthesis

 Ribosomes themselves are synthesized in the cell nucleoli and
are structured as two subunits, the large and the small
 These parts are composed of RNA and protein

 Prokaryotic and eukaryotic ribosomes are different,

 the eukaryotic ones being larger and more complicated

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 6.Mitochondria
 are the “power houses” of a cell
 Mitochondria, organelles enclosed by a double membrane, are
the sites of aerobic respiration
 The inner membrane is folded, forming cristae that increase its
surface area
 The cristae and the compartment enclosed by the inner
membrane, the matrix, contain enzymes for the reactions of
aerobic respiration.
 During aerobic respiration, nutrients are broken down in the
presence of oxygen.
 Energy captured from nutrients is packaged in ATP, and carbon
dioxide and water are produced as by-products.

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 Fig. 3.5. Mitochondrial structure
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 Cont…

Chloroplasts
 Chloroplasts participate in the process of photosynthesis
 Plastids are organelles that produce and store food in the cells
of plants and algae.
 Chloroplasts are plastids that carry out photosynthesis.
 The inner membrane of the chloroplast encloses a fluidfilled
space, the stroma.
 Grana, stacks of disclike membranous sacs called thylakoids,
are suspended in the stroma.
 During photosynthesis, chlorophyll, the green pigment found
in the thylakoid membranes, traps light energy.
 This energy is converted to chemical energy in ATP and used

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4/18/23 09:07:39 AM MTU 91
 Vesicles -are used to store or transport substances around the
cell.
Lysosomes are actually Vesicles
Vacuoles are essentially larger Vesicles, and they are
formed by the joining together of many Vesicles
 In plant cells they are important in maintaining Turgor
Pressure.

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  Cytoskeleton
The cytoskeleton is a dynamic internal framework made of
microtubules,
microfilaments, and
intermediate filaments
 The cytoskeleton provides structural support and functions in
various types of cell movement,
including transport of materials in the cell
 Microtubules are hollow cylinders assembled from subunits
of the protein tubulin.
 In cells that are not dividing, the minus ends of microtubules
are anchored in microtubule-organizing centers (MTOCs).

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 Microfilaments, or actin filaments, formed from subunits of the
protein actin, are important in cell movement.
 Intermediate filaments strengthen the cytoskeleton and stabilize cell
shape.

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 Generally, cytoskeletons
determine/ provide
 shape of a cell
 structural support
 organizing its contents
 contribute to movements of the
cell as a whole i.e. cilia, flagella
and intracytoplasmic vesicles
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 Biological Membrane(cell membrane or plasma membrane)
• Biological membranes surround cells and serve to keep the
insides separated from the outsides.
• The plasma membrane is a fluid lipid bilayer embedded with
proteins
The main components of the plasma
membrane are
lipids ( phospholipids and
cholesterol),
proteins, and
carbohydrates

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Fluid mosaic model=current model of membrane

describes the plasma membrane structure as a mosaic of phospholipids,

cholesterol, proteins, and carbohydrates
 Move freely in lipid layer, but rarely switch layers
 Different phospholipids in each layer in different organelles Glycolipids,
sterols (cholesterol in animals)
 Transmembrane proteins "float" in fluid lipid bilayer
 also called intrinsic, integral proteins
 Exterior (extrinsic, peripheral) proteins
 The Fluid Mosaic Model of the cell membrane

extracellular fluid (outside) carbohydrate

receptor
protein glycoprotein
phospholipid protein
recognition protein binding bilayer
site transport
cholesterol
phospholipid pore protein

protein filaments
cytosol (inside)
 Biological membranes are formed of
 1.phospholipid bilayers,
 a double layer of fatty acid molecules (mostly
phospholipids, lipids containing lots of phosphorus)
 Are the basic structure of the membrane
 contains a charged, hydrophilic (attracted to water) head and two
hydrophobic (repelled by water) tails
 Cont…

 2. Proteins- there are variety of different proteins within the

plasma membrane
Membrane proteins have the following special functions:
1. Some form water-filled passage ways or channels or gatekeepers
The channels are highly selective; they can selectively
attract or repel particular ions.
Channels open and close in response to a controlling
mechanism.
2. Other proteins serve as carrier molecule that transport specific
molecule that cannot cross on their own.
3. Many proteins on the outer surface serve as ‘receptor sites’ that
recognize and bind with specific molecules in the cell
environment.

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 Cont…

4. Another group of proteins act as membrane-bound enzymes

5. Some proteins are arranged as filaments network/meshwork and
maintain cell shape
6. Other proteins function as cell adhesion molecules (CAMs)
7. Some proteins are important in the cell’s ability to recognize ‘self’ and
in cell-to-cell interactions

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 Cont…
 3. Membrane Carbohydrate:
► Short-chain carbohydrate on the outer membrane surface serves as
self-identity marker enabling cells to identify and interact with each
other in the following ways:
► Recognition of “self” and cell-to-cell interactions.
i.e. they act as a “trademark” of a particular cell type, for
recognition.
► are important in growth. Cells do not overgrow their own
territory.
► abnormal surface markers present in tumor cells, and
► abnormality may underline uncontrolled growth.
► some of them , on the outermost tip where they participate in cell
adhesion activity.

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 Functions of biological membranes
 the phospholipid bilayers
♠ provides the basic structure
♠ restrict entry and exit of polar molecules and ion.

 The other molecules in the membrane have

 Channel protein and carrier protein

 Enzymes
 Receptor molecules
– hormones are chemical messengers, which circulate and only bind to
specific target  cells
– Neurotransmitters
 Antigens/glycoproteins
 Glycolipids- are involved in cell-cell recognition.
 Eg. sperm recognition of ova
 Energy Transfer in photosynthesis and respiration proteins
 Cholesterol: reducing the escape or entry of polar molecules through the
membrane
104
 3.4. Cellular diversity

are very diverse in their size, shape and their internal structure
3.4.1. Cell Shape
Cells have different shapes due to appropriate function
Nerve cells have long extensions
Skin cells have a shape which is flat
Egg cells have shape which is like sphere, and some bacteria are
rod in shape
Some plant cells are rectangular

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 3.4.3. Transport across the cell membranes

• The plasma membrane is selectively permeable

• Lipid-soluble substances and small ions can passively diffuse
• Uncharged/non-polar molecules
O2,
CO2 and
fatty acids are highly lipid-soluble and readily permeate
the membrane
• Charged particle sodium/potassium ions and polar molecules
such as glucose and proteins have low lipid solubility, but are
very soluble in water
• The phospholipid bilayer is a good barrier around cells,
especially to water soluble molecules
 There are 4 basic mechanisms of transport:
Diffusion and facilitated diffusion
Osmosis
Active transport
Bulk transport
 Two forces are involved in facilitating movement across the
plasma membrane:
1. passive force :- cell do not require to expend energy
2. active force :- requiring energy (as ATP) to be expended

107
 Diffusion

• movement of molecules from high concentration to low

concentration
 (Moving across the concentration gradient)
• No energy is required
• Will continue until the concentration is the same in all regions
 Factors that influence the rate of net diffusion across a
membrane are:
 Concentration of molecules
 permeability of the membrane
 surface area of the membrane
 molecular weight of the substance (if increased
decrease the rate of diffusion
 Distance- thickness through which diffusion must
take place(if increased decrease the rate of diffusion

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 Cont….

 Movement along electrical gradient

֎ Movement of charged particles is also affected by their
electrical gradient
֎ If a relative difference in charges exist between two
adjacent areas
 the cations tend to move towards more negatively charged area,
 the anions tend to move toward the more positively charged areas
֎ The simultaneous existence of an electrical and
concentration (chemical) gradient for a particular ion is
referred to as an electro-chemical gradient

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 Fig: 3.11. Concentration gradient (A) and Diffusion (B)

Fig:3.12. Diffusion of lipid molecules

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 Carrier- Mediated Transport
All carrier proteins have specific binding site can alternately be
exposed at either side of the membrane.
This transport displays three characteristics:
Specificity: each cell possesses protein specified to transport
a specific substance
Saturation: in a given time only a limited amount of a
substance can be transported via a carrier.
This limit is known as transport maximum (Tm). When the
Tm is reached, the carrier is saturated
Competition: Several closely related compounds may
compete for ride across the plasma membrane on the same
carrier.

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 Cont…
Facilitated Diffusion
It uses a carrier protein to facilitate the transfer of a
particular substance across the membrane ''downhill'' from
higher to lower concentration.
It does not require energy because movement occurs
naturally down a concentration gradient(passive transport)
Active transport, on the other hand, requires the carrier to
expend energy to transfer its passenger ''uphill'' against a
concentration gradient from an area of lower concentration
to an area of higher concentration
Active transport requires protein carrier to transfer a
specific substance across the membrane, transporting
against concentration gradient

MTU 113
4/18/23 09:07:40 AM
Transporting of molecules facilitated diffusion

carrier amino acids,

protein sugars, small
proteins
(extracellular fluid)

(cytosol)
1 Carrier protein 2 Molecule 3 Carrier protein 4 Carrier protein
has binding site enters binding changes shape, resumes original
for a specific site. transporting shape.
molecule. molecule across
membrane.
Osmosis

Osmosis is the net diffusion of water down its own

concentration gradient
Water can readily permeate the plasma membrane.
The driving force for diffusion of water is its concentration
gradient from area of higher water concentration (low solute)
to the area of lower water concentration (high solute)
This net diffusion of water is known as osmosis
Special mechanisms are used to transport selected molecules
unable to cross the plasma membrane on their own.
4/18/23 09:07:40 AM MTU 116
Fig:3.13. Diffusion of water molecules
Active transport

Active transport is energy consuming transport of molecules or ions

in the opposite direction
The movement of molecules in active transport is in one direction
only; unlike diffusion
The major ions within the cells and their surrounding are
sodium (Na+)
potassium (K+) and
chloride (Cl-)
cell surface membrane of most cell have sodium pump coupled
with a potassium pump that actively moves potassium ion from
outside to inside the cell( Sodium potassium pump (Na+-K+ pump).
The combined pump is called the sodium pump (Na+ -K - pump)
The transfer of Na+ and K+ across the membrane is brought about by
the changes in the shape of the protein.
117
 Cont…

 Na+-K+-pump plays three important roles

1. It establishes Na+-K+ concentration gradients across the

plasma membrane of all cells; these gradients are important
in the nerve and muscle to generate electrical signals.
2. It helps regulate cell volume by controlling the
concentration of solutes inside the cell and thus minimizing
osmotic effects that would induce swelling or shrinking of
the cell.
3. The energy used to run the pump also indirectly serves as
the energy source for the co-transport of glucose and amino
acids across the membrane (intestine and kidney cell).
 Fig: 3.15. Sodium-Potassium pump

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 Table 3.1 How molecules cross cell membrane

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Vesicular Transport
 The special cell membrane transport system selectively
transports ions and small polar molecules
but large polar molecules and multimolecular material may
leave or enter the cell, such as hormone secretion or ingestion
of invading microbe by leukocytes.
These materials cannot cross the plasma membrane but are to
be transferred between the ICF and ECF not by usual crossing
but by wrapped in membrane.
This process of transport into or out of the cell in a
membrane-enclosed vesicle is MTU
4/18/23 09:07:40 AM - vesicular transport. 121
• Transport of molecules such as proteins into the
cell is termed endocytosis
• Two types of endocytosis
– Phagocytosis (cell eating)
 material taken up is in solid form
– Pinocytosis ( cell drink)
 material taken up is in liquid form

 whereas Transport of molecules out of the cell is called exocytosis.

Exocytosis is the reverse process of endocytosis
123
• Exocytosis
– Movement of materials out of the cell
– Used in plants to export cell wall material
– Used in animals to secrete hormones, neurotransmitters,
digestive enzymes

124