UNIVERSITY INSTITUTE OF SCIENCES

Academic Unit IV
Bachelor of Engineering
(Computer Science & Engineering)
Biology For Engineers
22SZ148

By
Dr. Devinder Kaur

DISCOVER . LEARN . EMPOWER

 Course Objective
• This subject is designed to impart
fundamental knowledge on basic
and emerging fields of biology
like bioinformatics.

• It is designed to impart
knowledge that how to apply
basics of biology in engineering.
https://images.app.goo.gl/pfWfHfCFP56qo7wC7
 Course Outcome
CO
Title Level
Number
Identify the biological concepts from an Remember
CO1
engineering perspective.  
Development of artificial systems mimicking Understand
CO2
human action.  
Explain the basic of genetics that helps to identify
CO3 Understand
and formulate problems

Apply knowledge of measurement system,

biomedical recording system and biosensors to Understand
CO4
excel in areas such as entrepreneurship,  
medicine, government, and education.
Will be covered in this lecture
Integrate biological principles for developing next
CO5
generation technologies https://images.app.goo.gl/5obqqxo93P2UBmdU6
 SYLLABUS
Unit-2 Biosensors and measurement system Contact Hours: 15
Chapter 1 Medical Instrumentation: Sources of biomedical Signals, Basic medical
Medical Instrumentation system, Performance requirements of medical Instrumentation
Instrumentation System, Microprocessors in Medical instruments, PC base medical Instruments,
General constraints in the design of medical Instrumentation system, Regulation
of Medical Devices.
Chapter 2 Measurement System: Specification of instruments, Statics & Dynamic
Measurement characteristics of medical instruments, Classification of errors. Statistical analysis,
Reliability, Accuracy, Fidelity, Speed of responses, Linearization of technique, and
System Data Acquisition System.
Biological sensors: Sensors/ receptors in the human body, basic organization of
Chapter 3 the nervous system- neural mechanism, Chemoreceptor: hot and cold receptors,
sensors for smell, sound, vision, Ion exchange membrane electrodes, enzyme,
Biological glucose sensors, immunosensors, & biosensors & applications of biosensors.
Sensor
 
Nervous System

5
 Nervous System
• The nervous system is a network of neurons whose main
feature is to generate, modulate and transmit information
between all the different parts of the human body.
• This property enables many important functions of the
nervous system, such as regulation of vital body functions
(heartbeat, breathing, digestion), sensation and body
movements.
• Ultimately, the nervous system structures preside over
everything that makes us human; our consciousness,
cognition, behaviour and memories.

6
 Nervous System
• The nervous system regulates most body systems using direct
connections called nerves.
• It enables you to sense and respond to stimuli
• The basic function of nervous system are:
1.Receive sensory input internal or external
2.Integrate the input
3.Responding to internal and external stimuli

7
 Sensory input

Sensor Integration

Motor output

Effector Peripheral nervous Central nervous

system (PNS) system (CNS)

8
 Basic Functions of the Nervous System 
• Sensation
• Monitors changes/events occurring in and outside the body.
• Such changes are known as stimuli and the cells that monitor them
are receptors.
• Integration
• The parallel processing and interpretation of sensory information to
determine the appropriate response.
• Reaction
• Motor output
• The activation of muscles or glands (typically via the release of
neurotransmitters (NTs))

9
10
 The nervous system consists of two divisions
Central nervous system Peripheral nervous system (PNS) all the nerves
(CNS) is the integration between the CNS and the body
and command center of It is further subdivided into:
the body

The Sensory or Afferent The Motor or Efferent

Division Division

Somatic Autonomi
nervous c nervous
system system
(SNS) (ANS) 
11
12
 Central Nervous System (CNS)
• It consists of composed of two major
interconnected organs: – the brain and the
spinal cord.
• These organs work together to integrate and
coordinate sensory and motor information
for the purpose of controlling the various
tissues, organs, and organ systems of the
body.
• The spinal cord is made of bundles of nerves
that are surrounded by bones for protection.
• Once a signal from a sensor reaches the
spinal cord, it is sent up the cord to the brain.
• The brain decides what to do based on the
information received.
• The central nervous system is responsible for
higher neural functions, such as memory,
learning, and emotion.
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
• The peripheral nervous system (PNS)
is a collection of peripheral nerves,
ganglia and specialized sensory
structures that, as a system, carries
sensory and motor information
between the central nervous system
and all other organs and tissues of the
body.
• Responsible for communication
between the CNS and the rest of the
body.
• They send signals to other nerves,
which send signals to more nerves
until the signal reaches the second
part of the nervous system, the
central nervous system. 13
14
 Central Nervous System:
Brain and Spinal Cord
• The central nervous system (CNS) consists of the brain and
spinal cord.
• These are found housed within the skull and vertebral
column respectively.
• Together these parts process the incoming information
from peripheral tissues and generate commands; telling the
tissues how to respond and function.
• These commands tackle the most complex voluntary and
involuntary human body functions, from breathing to
thinking.
15
 Brain
• Brain is the largest and most complex
mass of nervous tissue in the body.
• Weighs about 3 pounds in adults
• 75% water
• 20% of oxygen
• Contains over 100 billion neurons
• Controls bodily functions and interactions
with the outside world.
• it is commonly discussed in terms of its
four major regions – cerebrum (cerebral
hemispheres), diencephalon, cerebellum,
and brain stem.
16
 The Cerebrum
• Taking up 7/8ths of the brain’s weight, the cerebrum governs all sensory and motor activity.
• Cerebral Cortex is gray matter because nerve fibers lack white myelin coating.
• This includes sensory perception, emotions, consciousness, memory, and voluntary
movements.

• It is divided into two hemispheres, with an

outer portion called the cerebral cortex.
• The surface or cortex is arranged in bulging
folds, each one called a gyrus (JĪ rus), and
furrows, each one called a sulcus (SULL
kus).
• The two hemispheres are connected by a
bridge of nerve fibers that relay
information between the two hemispheres
called the corpus callosum.
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 The Cerebrum
• The cortex is also divided into four
lobes or parts:
• Frontal lobe: specializes in motor activity,
personality, and speech
• Parietal lobe: where language,
temperature, pressure, touch are
interpreted
• Temporal lobe: contains centers for
hearing, smell, and language input
• Occipital lobe: Specializes in vision

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 The Cerebellum
• The cerebellum is the second largest part of the brain.
• The large, cauliflower-like cerebellum projects dorsally from
under the occipital lobe of the cerebrum.
• It contains nerve fibers that connect it to every part of the
central nervous system.
• It coordinates voluntary and involuntary patterns of
movements.
• It also adjusts muscles to automatically maintain posture.
• The cerebellum provides precise timing for skeletal muscle
activity and controls our balance and equilibrium.
• Fibers reach the cerebellum from the equilibrium apparatus
of the inner ear, the eye, the proprioceptors of the skeletal
muscles and tendons, and many other areas.
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 The Diencephalon
• The diencephalon, or interbrain, sits atop the
brain stem and is enclosed by the cerebral
hemispheres.
• It refers to the thalamus and hypothalamus.
• Thalamus: The thalamus, which encloses the shallow third ventricle of the brain, is a
relay station for all sensory impulses passing upward to the sensory cortex.
• Hypothalamus. The hypothalamus makes up the floor of the diencephalon; it is an
important autonomic nervous system center because it plays a role in the regulation of
body temperature, water balance, and metabolism; it is also the center for many
drives and emotions, and as such, it is an important part of the so-called limbic
system or “emotional-visceral brain”.
• Attached to the pituitary gland, it also controls hormonal secretions of this gland.

20
 The Brainstem
• The brain stem is about the size of a thumb in diameter and approximately 3 inches
long.
• Its structures are the midbrain, pons, and the medulla oblongata.
• Midbrain. The midbrain extends from the mammillary
bodies to the pons inferiorly; it is composed of two bulging
fiber tracts, the cerebral peduncles, which convey
descending and ascending impulses.
• Pons. The pons is a rounded structure that protrudes just
below the midbrain, and this area of the brain stem is mostly
fiber tracts; however, it does have important nuclei involved
in the control of breathing.
• Medulla oblongata. The medulla oblongata is the most
inferior part of the brain stem; it contains nuclei that regulate
vital visceral activities; it contains centers that control heart
rate, blood pressure, breathing, swallowing,
and vomiting among others. 21
 Spinal Cord
The cylindrical spinal cord is a glistening white continuation of the brain
stem.
•Length. The spinal cord is approximately 17 inches (42 cm) long.
•Major function. The spinal cord provides a two-way conduction pathway
to and from the brain, and it is a major reflex center (spinal reflexes are
completed at this level).
•Location. Enclosed within the vertebral column, the spinal cord extends
from the foramen magnum of the skull to the first or second lumbar vertebra,
where it ends just below the ribs.
•Meninges. Like the brain, the spinal cord is cushioned and protected by the
meninges; meningeal coverings do not end at the second lumbar vertebra but
instead extend well beyond the end of the spinal cord in the vertebral canal.
•Spinal nerves. In humans, 31 pairs of spinal nerves arise from the cord and
exit from the vertebral column to serve the body area close by.
•Cauda equina. The collection of spinal nerves at the inferior end of the
vertebral canal is called cauda equina because it looks so much like a horse’s
tail.
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23
 Spinal Cord
• Contains both gray and white matter
• Gray matter is H-shape in core of cord
• Gray Matter:
• Regions of brain and spinal cord made up primarily of cell
bodies and dendrites of nerve cells
• Interneurons in spinal cord
• small nerves which do not leave the spinal cord
• Terminal portion of axons
• White Matter
• Contains tracts or pathways made up of bundles of myelinated
nerves
• Carry ascending and descending signals
• Ascending nerve tract from sensory receptors through dorsal
root, up cord to thalamus, to cerebral cortex
• Pyramidal tract transmits impulses downward eventually
excites motoneurons control muscles.
• Extrapyramidal originate in brain stem descend to control
posture. 24
25
 Spinal Cord
• At each segment of the spinal cord, left and right pairs of
sensory and motor nerves branch out and connect to the
peripheral nervous system.
• Impulses travel back and forth to the brain and back to the
muscles.
• The spinal cord is the highway for
communication between the body
and the brain.
• When the spinal cord is injured,
the exchange of information
between the brain and other parts
of the body is disrupted. 26
 Protection of the Central Nervous System
• Nervous tissue is very soft and delicate, and the irreplaceable
neurons can be injured or destroyed by even the slightest
pressure.
• So nature has tried to protect the brain and the spinal cord by:
• Enclosing them within bones
• For Brain : The skull
• For Spinal Cord: vertebral column
• Surrounding membranes called meninges: The three
connective tissue membranes covering and protecting the CNS
structures
• A watery cushion (cerebrospinal fluid): It cushions the brain
and cord from shocks that could cause injury
• The blood-brain barrier 27
 Spinal Cord
• Extends from the medulla oblongata of the brain to the
area around the first lumbar vertebra in the lower back.
• Nerves from the peripheral nervous system extend out
from the spinal cord.
• Protected by:
• Vertebral column
• Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
• Meninges
• Meninges are three layers of membranes that cover the brain
and spinal cord.
Layers of the meninges
 Dura mater
 Outer tough fibrous membrane
 Arachnoid mater
 Middle weblike membrane containing CSF
 Space between Dura mater and Arachnoid mater is called Subdural
space which is filled with cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
 Pia mater
 Innermost layer containing several blood vessels 28
29
 Peripheral Nervous System
• The PNS is a vast network of nerves consisting of bundles of
axons that link the body to the brain and the spinal cord.
• Sensory nerves of the PNS contain sensory receptors that detect
changes in the internal and external environment.
• This information is sent to the CNS via afferent sensory nerves.
• Following information processing in the CNS, signals are
relayed back to the PNS by way of efferent peripheral nerves.

30
 Peripheral Nervous System
• The peripheral nervous system (PNS) is a
collection of peripheral nerves, ganglia and
specialized sensory structures that, as a system,
carries sensory and motor information between the
central nervous system and all other organs and
tissues of the body.
• The peripheral nervous system is functionally
divided into two major divisions:
• The Sensory or Afferent Division
• The Motor or Efferent Division
• The Somatic Nervous System
• The Autonomic (Visceral) Nervous System.

31
 Peripheral Nervous System
• The PNS consists of 12 pairs of cranial nerves, 31 pairs of spinal
nerves and a number of small neuronal clusters throughout the body
called ganglia.
• Peripheral nerves can be sensory (afferent), motor (efferent) or mixed
(both).
• Depending on what structures they innervate, peripheral nerves can
have the following modalities;
• Special - innervating special senses (e.g. eye) and is found only in
afferent fibers
• General - supplying everything except special senses
• Somatic - innervates the skin and skeletal muscles (e.g. biceps brachii)
• Visceral - supplies internal organs. 
32
 S. Cranial Nerves Function
Cranial Nerves No.
1 Olfactory Sense of smell
2 Optic Sense of vision
• Cranial nerves are peripheral 3 Oculomotor Eye movements
nerves that emerge from the 4 Trochlear Aids muscles that move the eyes
cranial nerve nuclei of the 5 Trigeminal Eyes, tear glands, scalp, forehead, teeth, gums,
lips and mouth muscles
brainstem and spinal cord.
6 Abducens Muscle conditioning
• They innervate the head and 7 Facial Taste, facial expressions, tear and salivary
glands
neck.
8 Vestibulocochlear Hearing and equilibrium
• Cranial nerves are numbered
one to twelve according to 9 Glossopharyngeal Pharynx, tonsils tongue and carotid arteries;
stimulates salivary glands
their order of exit through
10 Vagus Speech, swallowing, heart muscle, smooth
the skull fissures muscle and certain glands
11 Accessory Muscles of the soft palate, pharynx, larynx and
neck
12 Hypoglossal Tongue movement
33
34
 Spinal Nerves
• Spinal nerves emerge from the segments of the spinal cord.
• They are numbered according to their specific segment of origin.
• Hence, the 31 pairs of spinal nerves are divided into 8 cervical pairs,
12 thoracic pairs, 5 lumbar pairs, 5 sacral pairs, and 1 coccygeal spinal
nerve.
• All spinal nerves are mixed, containing both sensory and motor fibers.
• Spinal nerves innervate the entire body, with the exception of the head.
• They do so by either directly synapsing with their target organs or by
interlacing with each other and forming plexuses.

35
36
 Spinal Nerves
• There are four major plexuses that supply
the body regions:
• Cervical plexus - innervates the neck 
• Brachial plexus - innervates the 
upper limb 
• Lumbar plexus - innervates the lower
 abdominal wall, anterior 
hip and thigh 
• Sacral plexus - innervates the pelvis
 and the lower limb

37
38
 Ganglia
• Ganglia (sing. ganglion) are clusters of neuronal cell bodies outside of the
CNS, meaning that they are the PNS equivalents to subcortical nuclei of the
CNS.
• Ganglia can be sensory or visceral motor (autonomic) and their distribution
in the body is clearly defined.
• Dorsal root ganglia are clusters of sensory nerve cell bodies located
adjacent to the spinal cord.
• They are a component of the posterior root of a spinal nerve.
• Autonomic ganglia are either sympathetic or parasympathetic. 
• Sympathetic ganglia are found in the thorax and abdomen, grouped into
paravertebral and prevertebral ganglia.
• Parasympathetic ganglia are found in the head and pelvis.
39
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41
 Somatic Nervous System
• The somatic nervous system is the voluntary
component of the peripheral nervous system.
• It consists of all the fibers within cranial and
spinal nerves that enable us to perform voluntary
body movements (efferent nerves) and feel
sensation from the skin, muscles, and
joints (afferent nerves).
• Somatic sensation relates to touch, pressure,
vibration, pain, temperature, stretch, and position
sense. 
• Sensation from the glands, smooth and cardiac
muscles is conveyed by the autonomic nerves.
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 Autonomic Nervous System
• The autonomic nervous system is the involuntary part of the peripheral nervous
system.
• Further divided into the sympathetic (SANS), parasympathetic (PANS) systems, it is
comprised exclusively of visceral motor fibers.
• Nerves from both these divisions innervate all involuntary structures of the body:
• Cardiac muscle
• Glandular cells
• Smooth muscles present in the walls of the blood vessels and hollow organs. 
• Balanced functioning of these two systems plays a crucial role in maintaining
homeostasis, meaning that the SANS and PANS do not oppose each other but rather,
they complement each other.
• They do so by potentiating the activity of different organs under various
circumstances; for example, the PSNS will stimulate higher intestine activity after
food intake, while SANS will stimulate the heart to increase the output during
exercise. 44
 Autonomic Nervous System Subdivisions
• Sympathetic
• Responsible for adjusting our bodies for situations of increased
physical activity
• Its actions are commonly described as the ‘Fight or Flight’ response.
• As it stimulates responses such as faster breathing, increased heart
rate, elevated blood pressure, dilated pupils and redirection of
blood flow from the skin, kidneys, stomach and intestines to the
heart and muscles, where it’s needed.
• Parasympathetic
• Responsible for adjusting our bodies for energy conservation,
activating “rest and digest” activities.
• The nerves of the PSNS slow down the actions of the cardiovascular
system, divert blood away from muscles and increase peristalsis and
gland secretion.
• These 2 systems are antagonistic.
• Typically, we balance these 2 to keep in a state of dynamic
balance. 45
46
47
The nervous system is composed of the following
organs:

 Brain
Nervous  Spinal cord
Tissues  Nerves
 Sense organs (eyes, ears, etc.)

48
 Cells of the Nervous System 
• Even though it is complex, nervous tissue is made up of just two
principal types of cells- supporting cells and neurons:

• Neurons: original/functional nerve cells

• Neurons feature many thin projecting fibers called axons, which penetrate deep
into tissues.
• They are able to communicate with other cells by chemical or electrical means at
synapses.

• Glial cells: supporting tissue

• Neuronal function is supported by neuroglia, specialized cells which provide
nutrition, mechanical support, and protection.
49
 Glial Cells (Neuroglia)
• Glial cells, also called neuroglia or simply glia, are smaller non-excitatory
cells that act to support neurons.
• They do not propagate action potentials.
• Instead, they myelinate neurons, maintain homeostatic balance, provide
structural support, protection and nutrition for neurons throughout the
nervous system.
• This set of functions is provided for by four different types of glial cells:
• Myelinating glia produce the axon-insulating myelin sheath. These are
called oligodendrocytes in the CNS and Schwann cells in the PNS.
• Astrocytes (CNS) and satellite glial cells (PNS) both share the function of
supporting and protecting neurons.
• Other two glial cell types are found in CNS exclusively; microglia are the
phagocytes (remove debris) of the CNS and ependymal cells which line the
ventricular system of the CNS. 50

Ependymal cells: Ependymal cells
are glial cells that line the central
cavities of the brain and the spinal
cord; the beating of their cilia
helps to circulate
the cerebrospinal fluid that fills
those cavities and forms a
protective cushion around the
CNS.
Oligodendrocytes: These are glia that wrap their flat
extensions tightly around the nerve fibers, producing fatty
insulating coverings called myelin sheaths.
Satellite
cells: Satellite cells
act as protective,
cushioning cells.

Astrocytes: These are abundant,

star-shaped cells that account for Schwann cells:
nearly half of the neural tissue; Schwann cells form
astrocytes form a living barrier the myelin sheaths
between the capillaries and around nerve fibers
neurons and play a role in making that are found in the
exchanges between the two so PNS.
they could help protect neurons
from harmful substances that Microglia: These are
might be in the blood. spiderlike phagocytes that
dispose of debris, including
51
dead brain cells and bacteria.
• Most axons are wrapped by a
white insulating substance called
the myelin sheath, produced by
oligodendrocytes and Schwann
cells.
• Myelin encloses an axon
segmentally, leaving
unmyelinated gaps between the
segments called the nodes of
Ranvier.
• The neural impulses propagate
through the Ranvier nodes only,
skipping the myelin sheath.
• This significantly increases the
speed of neural impulse
propagation.  52
 Neurons
• Neurons, or nerve cells, are the main structural and
functional units of the nervous system
• Central to the functioning of the nervous system is an
extensive network of specialized cells called neurons.
• Neurons in Nervous Tissue Relay Rapid-Fire Signals
• All nervous tissue, from the brain to the spinal cord to the
furthest nerve branch, includes cells called neurons.
• Neurons are charged cells: they conduct electrical signals to
pass information through the body.

53
 Types of Neurons
• Efferent (Motor neurons):
Transmit messages from the
central nervous system to the
muscles (or to glands)
• Afferent (Sensory neurons):
Carry messages from sensory
receptors to the central nervous
system
• Every neuron has three basic parts
• Interneuron: Found only in the • Soma or Cell Bodies
central nervous system where • Dendrites
they connect neuron to neuron
• Axons
54
 Neurons
• Neurons, also called nerve cells, are
highly specialized to transmit
messages (nerve impulses) from one
part of the body to another.
• A typical neuron consists of a cell
body (soma), dendrites, and an axon
with an axon terminal.
• Cell body: contains the nucleus,
mitochondria and other organelles
typical of eukaryotic cells
• Dendrites: receive information from
another cell and transmit the message
to the cell body
• Axon: conducts messages away from
the cell body 55
 Nerve Cell Body
• AKA Soma or Perikaryon • Cytoplasm contains:
• Various size and forms – stellate, • Nucleus
round, pyramidal • Nissl bodies or Nissl granules
• It maintains the functional and • Neurofibrillae
anatomical integrity of axon cut • Mitochondria
part distal to cut degenerate • Golgi apparatus
• Soma are present in : • Nissl granules and neurofibrillae
- Grey matter of CNS found only in nerve cell not in
- Nuclei of brain e.g., cranial N. other cell
Nuclei/Basal ganglia/Ganglia of CNS • Synthesize proteins of neurons
- All neurons contain soma which transported to axon by
- All processes do not survive without axonal flow
soma
56
 DENDRITES
• Tapering and branching extension of
soma
• Dendrites of cerebral cortex and
cerebellar cortex show knobby
projections called dendritic spine
• May be absent if present may be one or
many in number
• Conduct impulses towards the cell body
• Generate local potential not action
potential as well as integrate activity
• Has Nissl granules and neurofibrils
• Dendrites and soma constitute input zone

57
 Axon
• Each neuron has only one axon
• Arises from axon hillock of soma
• Carry impulses away from cell body
• Cannot synthesize own protein depends upon soma
• Branched only at its terminal end called synaptic knobe, terminal
button, axon telodendria
• Axon divides into terminal branches and each ending in numbers of
synaptic knobs
• Contain granules or vesicles which contain synaptic transmitters
• Specialized to convert electrical signal (AP) to chemical signal
58
59
60
 Myelin Sheath
• Concentric layers of protein alternating with lipid
• Nerve fiber insulated by myelin sheath- myelinated nerve fiber
• Protein lipid complex wrapped around axon >100 times
• Outside the CNS (peripheral nerve) myelin produced by Schwann cells
• Inside the CNS myelin sheath produced by oligodendrogliocytes
• Not continuous sheath absent at regular intervals
• Where sheath absent – node of Ranvier (1µm)
• Segment between two node- internode (1mm)
Importance of Myelin Sheath
• Propagation of action potential very fast due to saltatory
conduction (possible only in myelinated nerve fiber)
• Myelination results quicker mobility in higher animals
• Have high insulating capacity so prevents cross
stimulation 61
 Neurilemma
• AKA sheath of Schwann
• This membrane which surrounds axis cylinder
• Contain Schwann cells which have flattened
and elongated nuclei
• One nucleus is present in each internode of • Functions of Neurilemma
axon • Non myelinated nerve fiber – serve
• Nucleus situated between myelin sheath and as covering membrane
neurilemma • In myelinated nerve fiber
• Non myelinated nerve fiber neurilemma necessary for myelinogenesis
surrounds axolemma continuously • Neurilemma absent in CNS
• At node of Ranvier neurilemma invaginates • Oligodendrogliocytes are
up to axolemma responsible for myelinogenesis in
CNS 62
 Gray Matter and White Matter
• The nervous system is often divided into components called gray matter and
white matter.
• Gray matter, which is gray in preserved tissue but pink or light brown in
living tissue, contains a relatively high proportion of neuron cell bodies.
• The white color of myelinated axons is distinguished from the gray colored
neuronal bodies and dendrites.
• Conversely, white matter is composed mainly of axons and is named
because of the color of the fatty insulation called myelin that coats many
axons.
• White matter includes all of the nerves of the PNS and much of the interior
of the brain and spinal cord.
• Gray matter is found in clusters of neurons in the brain and spinal cord and
in cortical layers that line their surfaces. 63
 How do neurons function?
• The morphology of neurons makes them highly specialized to work with
neural impulses; they generate, receive and send these impulses onto
other neurons and non-neural tissues. 
• The site where an axon connects to another cell to pass the neural
impulse is called a synapse.
• The synapse doesn't connect to the next cell directly.
• Instead, the impulse triggers the release of chemicals
called neurotransmitters from the very end of an axon.
• These neurotransmitters bind to the effector cell’s membrane, causing
biochemical events to occur within that cell according to the orders sent
by the CNS.
64
65
• Every neuron has a single axon, while
the number of dendrites varies.
• The dendrites receive signals from
body tissues or other neurons and
pass them into the cell body.
• If an outgoing signal is produced, it
zips down the axon to the axon
terminal and passes to the next
neuron or target cell.
• This conductive capability sends
information up and down nerve
pathways and through the central
nervous system at incredible speed.
• Some 100 billion neurons give the
brain its awesome processing power.

66
 FUNCTIONAL DIVISION OF
NEURON
• Divided in to four zone:
1. Receptor or dendritic zone:
• Multiple local potential generated by synaptic connection
are integrated
2. Origin of conducted impulse:
• Propagated action potential generated (Initial of segment
of spinal motor neuron)
• Initial node of Ranvier in sensory neuron
3. Conductive zone:
• Axonal process transmits propagated impulse to the nerve
ending
• All or none transmission
4. Secretory zone:
• Nerve ending where AP cause release of neurotransmitters
 Neurotransmitters
• Neurotransmitters Are the Activators of the Nervous System
• Neurotransmitters are often referred to as the body's chemical messengers.
• Neurotransmitters travel across synapses, spaces between neurons or between
neurons and other body tissues and cells.
• Most neurotransmitters are either small amine molecules, amino acids, or
neuropeptides.
• The first neurotransmitter to be discovered was a small molecule called
acetylcholine.

When these signals

Nervous system
Nerve cells respond to reach the end of a
messages travel through
electrical, chemical, or neuron, they stimulate
neurons as electrical
mechanical stimuli the release of chemicals
signals
called neurotransmitters
68
 • The synaptic terminal of one axon passes
Dendrites
Stimulus
information across the synapse in the form
of chemical messengers called
Axon hillock neurotransmitters
Nucleus
• A synapse is a junction between an axon
Cell and another cell
body • Information is transmitted from a
Presynaptic presynaptic cell (a neuron) to a
cell Axon
postsynaptic cell (a neuron, muscle, or
Signal
direction gland cell)
Synapse
Synaptic terminals
Synaptic
terminals

Postsynaptic cell
Neurotransmitter

69
 EXCITATION & CONDUCTION
• Neurotransmitters can be classified as • Nerve properties related to function
two types: excitatory or inhibitory. • Irritability
• Excitatory neurotransmitters: • able to respond to stimuli
stimulate electrical signals in other • Conductivity
• able to transmit electrical potential
neurons and encourage responses along the axon
from body cells.
• Eg: Glutamate
• Inhibitory transmitters: discourage
signals and cellular responses.
• Eg: γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA)
• Through these chemicals, the nervous
system regulates the activity of muscles,
glands, and its own nerve pathways.
70
 EXCITATION & CONDUCTION
• For a long time, the process of communication between the nerves and their target
tissues was a big unknown for physiologists.
• With the development of electrophysiology and the discovery of electrical activity of
neurons, it was discovered that the transmission of signals from neurons to their target
tissues is mediated by action potentials. 
• An action potential is defined as a sudden, fast, transitory, and propagating change of
the resting membrane potential.
• Only neurons and muscle cells are capable of generating an action potential; that
property is called the excitability.
• Action potentials are nerve signals.
• Neurons generate and conduct these signals along their processes in order to transmit
them to the target tissues.
• Upon stimulation, they will either be stimulated, inhibited, or modulated in some way.
71
 RESTING MEMBRANE POTENTIAL
• Every cell has a voltage (difference in electrical charge) across its plasma
membrane called a membrane potential.
• The resting potential is the membrane potential of a neuron not
sending signals
• Changes in membrane potential act as signals, transmitting and
processing information.
• In a mammalian neuron at resting potential, the concentration of K+ is
highest inside the cell, while the concentration of Na+ is highest outside
the cell
• Sodium-potassium pumps use the energy of ATP to maintain these K+
and Na+ gradients across the plasma membrane
• These concentration gradients represent chemical potential energy.
72
• The opening of ion channels in the
plasma membrane converts chemical Key
Na
potential to electrical potential K

• A neuron at resting potential Sodium-

contains many open K+ channels and potassium
pump
fewer open Na+ channels; K+ diffuses OUTSIDE
out of the cell OF CELL
Potassium
• The resulting buildup of negative channel

charge within the neuron is the

major source of membrane potential Sodium
channel
• In neurons, the resting membrane
potential is usually about –70 mV,
which is close to the equilibrium
potential for K+.
INSIDE
OF CELL

73
 Resting Membrane Potential
• Inactive Neuron: Inside of the neuron has a negative
charge relative to the positive charge outside the cell
• Difference in charge between the inside and outside
of the cell (Polarized cell membrane)
• Sodium in greater concentration outside
• Potassium in greater concentration inside
• Anions in greater concentration inside
• Membrane permeability greater for potassium
than sodium
• Na+ / K+ pump moves sodium out, potassium in
• The resting potential of the neuron refers to the
voltage (charge) difference across the cell membrane
between the inside and outside of the neuron.
• The resting potential of the average neuron is around
-70 millivolts, indicating that the inside of the cell is
70 millivolts less than the outside of the cell. 74
 ACTION POTENTIAL
• Action potentials are the signals conducted by axons.
• They are due to changes in the conduction of ions across the cell membrane.
• Changes in membrane potential occur because neurons contain gated ion
channels that open or close in response to stimuli.
• A momentary change in electrical potential associated with the passage of an
impulse along the membrane of a muscle cell or nerve cell.
• The electrical events in neurons are rapid, being measured in milli seconds
(ms); and the potential changes are small, being measured in milli volts (mV).
• An Action potential is the neurons way of transporting electrical signals from
one cell to the next.
• Action potentials are the primary electrical responses of neurons and other
excitable tissues, and they are the main form of communication within the
nervous system. 75
 How an action potential is generated?
• When an impulse is sent out from a cell body, the gated K+ channels open, K+
diffuses out, making the inside of the cell more negative.
• This is hyperpolarization, an increase in magnitude of the membrane
potential
• The sodium ion channels open and the positive sodium cells surge into the
cell, which triggers a depolarization, a reduction in the magnitude of the
membrane potential.
• If a depolarization shifts the membrane potential sufficiently, it results in a
massive change in membrane voltage called an action potential
• They arise because some ion channels are voltage-gated, opening or closing
when the membrane potential passes a certain level
• Once the cell reaches a certain threshold, an action potential will fire,
sending the electrical signal down the axon. 76
 Generation of Action Potentials: A Closer Look
Key
• An action potential can Na
K
be considered as a
series of stages
• At resting potential 50

Membrane potential
1. Most voltage-gated 0
sodium (Na+) channels

(mV)
Threshold
are closed; most of 50
the voltage-gated 1
Resting potential
potassium (K+) 100
Time
OUTSIDE OF CELL
channels are also Sodium
channel
Potassium
channel
closed
INSIDE OF CELL
Inactivation loop
1 Resting state 77
 Generation of Action Potentials: A Closer Look
Key
• A neuron that emits an Na
K
action potential is often
said to "fire".
• Action potentials are 50
generated by special types

Membrane potential
of voltage-gated ion 0
channels embedded in a

(mV)
Threshold
cell's plasma membrane. 50
2
1
2 Depolarization Resting potential
100
Time
2. Voltage-gated Na+ OUTSIDE OF CELL Sodium Potassium
channel channel
channels open first and
Na+ flows into the cell
INSIDE OF CELL
Inactivation loop
1 Resting state 78
 Key
Na
K

• When an action
potential is generated 3 Rising phase of the action potential 50
Action
potential

Membrane potential
3
3. During the rising phase, 0

(mV)
the threshold is Threshold
2
crossed, and the 50
1
membrane potential 2 Depolarization Resting potential
increases 100
Time
OUTSIDE OF CELL Sodium Potassium
channel channel

INSIDE OF CELL
Inactivation loop
1 Resting state
79
 Key
Na
K

• When an action
potential is generated 3Rising phase of the action potential 50
4Falling phase of the action potential

Action
potential

Membrane potential
3
4. During the falling 0

(mV)
phase, voltage-gated Threshold
2
4

Na+ channels become 50

1
inactivated; voltage- 2 Depolarization Resting potential
gated K+ channels 100
Time
open, and K+ flows out OUTSIDE OF CELL Sodium Potassium
channel channel
of the cell

INSIDE OF CELL
Inactivation loop
1 Resting state
80
 Key
Na
K

5. During the
undershoot, 3 Rising phase of the action potential 50
4 Falling phase of the action potential

membrane Action
potential

Membrane potential
permeability to K+ 0
3

is at first higher

(mV)
Threshold 4
than at rest, then 50
2

voltage-gated K+ 1 5 1

channels close and 2 Depolarization

100
Resting potential
Time
resting potential is OUTSIDE OF CELL Sodium
channel
Potassium
channel
restored

INSIDE OF CELL
Inactivation loop
1 Resting state 5 Undershoot
81
• During the refractory
period after an action
potential, a second action
potential cannot be
initiated
• The refractory period is a
result of a temporary
inactivation of the Na+
channels

82
83
84
85
 Conduction of Action
Axon
Potentials
Action Plasma
membrane
• The action potential is propagated down the potential
length of the neuron, from its input source 1
at the dendrites, to the cell body, and then Na Cytosol
down the axon to the synaptic terminals
• At the site where the action potential is Action
generated, usually the axon hillock, an K potential
electrical current depolarizes the 2
neighboring region of the axon membrane. Na

• Action potentials travel in only one direction:

toward the synaptic terminals. K
Action
• Inactivated Na+ channels behind the zone of K potential
depolarization prevent the action potential 3
from traveling backwards Na

K 86
 Conduction of Action Potentials
• Action potentials are formed only at nodes of Ranvier, gaps in the myelin
sheath where voltage-gated Na+ channels are found
• Action potentials in myelinated axons jump between the nodes of
Ranvier in a process called saltatory conduction
Schwann cell

Depolarized region
(node of Ranvier)

Cell body
Myelin
sheath

Axon

87
 ALL-OR-NONE ACTION POTENTIALS
• Action potentials either happen or they don't;
there is no such thing as a "partial" firing of a
neuron.
• This principle is known as the ‘all-or-none’
law.
• The all-or-none law is the principle that the
strength by which a nerve or muscle fiber
responds to a stimulus is independent of the
strength of the stimulus.
• If that stimulus exceeds the threshold
potential, the nerve or muscle fiber will give a
complete response; otherwise, there is no
response.
88
 Neurons communicate with other cells at synapses
Presynaptic
• At electrical synapses, the electrical current cell Postsynaptic cell

flows from one neuron to another

• At chemical synapses, a chemical
neurotransmitter carries information across Axon
the gap junction 1 Synaptic vesicle
containing Postsynaptic
neurotransmitter
• Most synapses are chemical synapses. membrane

• The presynaptic neuron synthesizes and Synaptic

cleft
packages the neurotransmitter in synaptic
vesicles located in the synaptic terminal
Presynaptic
• The action potential causes the release of membrane 3

the neurotransmitter
K
• A substance that binds to a receptor is
known as a ligand Ca2
2

• The neurotransmitter diffuses across the

synaptic cleft and is received by the Voltage-gated
Ca2 channel
Ligand-gated
ion channels 4 Na
postsynaptic cell 89
 Generation of Postsynaptic Potentials
• Direct synaptic transmission involves binding of
neurotransmitters to ligand-gated ion channels in the
postsynaptic cell
• Neurotransmitter binding causes ion channels to open,
generating a postsynaptic potential
• Postsynaptic potentials fall into two categories
• Excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs) are depolarizations
that bring the membrane potential toward threshold
• Inhibitory postsynaptic potentials (IPSPs) are hyperpolarization
that move the membrane potential farther from threshold

90
91
 Nervous System
• The nervous system is very important in helping to
maintain the homeostasis (balance) of the human body.
• A series of sensory receptors work with the nervous
system to provide information about changes in both
the internal and external environments.
• The human nervous system is a complex of
interconnected systems in which larger systems are
comprised of smaller subsystems each of which have
specific structures with specific functions.
92
 REFERENCES

• The Human Nervous System. by Juergen K. Mai (Editor), George Paxinos AO (BA MA PhD DSc) NHMRC Dr. (Editor)
• The Structure and Function of Nervous Tissue. Volume IV: Physiology and Biochemistry. Ed. GEOFFREY H. BOURN
E (1972)
• Elaine.N. Marieb,“Essential of Human Anatomy and Physiology”, Eight edition, Pearson Education NewDelhi
, 2007.
• William F. Ganong,"Review of Medical Physiology, 22nd edition, McGraw Hill New Delhi,
• 2005
• Eldra Pearl Solomon."Introduction to Human Anatomy and Physiology", W.B.Saunders Company, 2003.
• Arthur C. Guyton, "Text book of Medical Physiology", 11 th Edition, Elsevier Saunders, 2006
• Khandpur. R. S., “Handbook of Biomedical Instrumentation”, Prentice Hall of India, New Delhi, 2003.
• How does the nervous system work? 2009 Oct 28 [Updated 2016 Aug 19]. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.
nih.gov/books/NBK279390/
• https://www.kenhub.com/en/library/anatomy/the-nervous-system
• https://nurseslabs.com/nervous-system/
• https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-ap/chapter/introduction-to-the-nervous-system/
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THANK YOU

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