Principles of Communication Systems

Unit III: FM Transmission and Reception

BY:
Dr. Anup Vibhute
Department of Electronics & Telecommunication Engg
Dr. D Y Patil Institute of Technology, Pimpri, Pune
Syllabus
• Phase Modulation (PM) and Frequency Modulation (FM)
• Relationship between Phase and Frequency Modulation
• Modulation Index
• Spectrum of FM (single tone): Feature of Bessel Coefficient, Power of FM signal,
Bandwidth of tone modulated FM signal
• modulation index : AM vs. FM
• Spectrum of constant Bandwidth’ FM, Narrowband and Wideband FM.
• FM Modulators and Demodulators: FM generation by Armstrong’s Indirect method,
frequency multiplication and application to FM, FM demodulator.

• CO3: : Explain generation and detection of FM systems and compare with

AM systems.
 Learning Objectives

 To understand the concept of angle modulation

 To Learn the difference between frequency
modulation & phase Modulation
 To understand the concept of modulation index and
deviation ratio
 To understand the importance of bessel function

3
 Angle Modulation

Amplitude modulation has the obvious advantage of being simple and relatively bandwidth
efficient. The disadvantages of amplitude modulations are
• The message is embedded in the amplitude of the carrier signal and linear amplifiers are
required for good performance. Linear amplifiers are difficult to achieve in applications
when either cost or small size are important.
• The absence of carrier signal tends to accentuate the noise.
• The bandpass bandwidth in AM systems is directly dependent on the message signal
bandwidth.
 Angle Modulation

Angle Modulation is the process of varying the total phase angle of a carrier signal in
proportion with the instantaneous value of the modulating signal keeping amplitude of the
carrier signal constant.
• The process of frequency modulation and phase modulation are the types of angle
modulation
• They are closely related to each other as frequency is rate of change of phase angle
(rad/sec)
Angle
Modulation

Phase Frequency
Modulation Modulation
 Angle Modulation

• FM and PM are closely related mathematically too, and it is thus quite convenient to group
both as angle modulation
 Angle Modulation

• The angle modulated wave can be expressed

as (1)

where denotes the angle of a modulated

sinusoidal carrier and is the
carrier
A complete oscillation
amplitude. occurschanges by 2π radians.
whenever
• If increases monotonically with time, the
average frequency in Hertz, over an interval from t to t+ Δt, is
given by

• We may therefore define the instantaneous frequency of

the angle modulated signal s(t) as follows
• Thus according to the equation (1), we may interpret the angle
modulated signal s(t) as a rotating phasor of length Ac and
angle

• The angular velocity of such a phasor measured in

is
radians per second, in accordance with equation
(3).
• In the simple case of an unmodulated carrier,
the angle is

and the corresponding phasor rotates with a constant angular

velocity equal to
The constant is the value of at t=0.
• There are an infinite number of ways in which the angle is
varied in some manner with the message (baseband) signal.
However, we shall consider two commonly used methods.

i. Phase Modulation (PM)

ii. Frequency Modulation (FM)
 i. Phase Modulation (PM):
PM is that form of angle modulation in which the angle
is varied linearly with the message signal m(t), as shown by

• The term represents the angle of the unmodulated

carrier and the constant represents the phase sensitivity
of
the modulator , rad/V.

• The phase modulated signal s(t) is thus described in the time

domain by
Phase Modulation (PM)
 ii. Frequency Modulation:
FM is that form of angle modulation in which
instantaneous frequency the is varied linearly with the
signal m(t), as shown message
by

The term represents the frequency of the

unmodulated carrier and the constant represents the
frequency sensitivity of the modulator, Hz/V.
• The frequency modulated signal s(t) is thus described in the
time domain by
Frequency Modulation (FM)
 Relationship between Phase Modulation (PM)
and Frequency Modulation (FM)

Modulating
Phase FM Wave
Signal Integrator Modulator

Fig (a): FM wave generation using Phase Modulator

Frequency
PM Wave
Modulating Differentiator
Signal Modulator

Fig (b): PM wave generation using Frequency Modulator

Single tone FM:

Consider a sinusoidal modulating signal defined by

The instantaneous frequency of the FM signal is

where
The quantity is called frequency deviation ,
representing the maximum departure of the instantaneous
frequency of the FM signal from the carrier frequency
• The angle of the FM signal is

• The ratio of frequency deviation to the

modulating frequency is commonly called as modulation
index of the FM signal. We denote it by β
β=
Frequency Modulation
 Narrowband Frequency Modulation Contd.,

But the modulated signal produced by the narrowband

modulator of above figure differs from this ideal condition in
two fundamental respects;
1. The envelope contains residual amplitude modulation and ,
therefore, varies with time.
2. For a sinusoidal modulating wave, the angle
contains harmonic distortion in the form of third and higher
order harmonics of the modulation frequency .
• However, by restricting the modulation index to β ≤ 0.3
radians, the effect of residual AM and harmonic PM are
limited to negligible levels.
• The expression of NBFM is similar to corresponding one
defining an AM signal, which is as follows
 Narrowband Frequency Modulation Contd.,

--- NBFM

--- AM

• In case of sinusoidal modulation, the basic difference between

an AM signal and NBFM signal is that the algebraic sign of
the lower side frequency in the NBFM is reversed. Thus a
NBFM signal is essentially requires the same transmission
bandwidth (i.e 2 ) as the AM signal.
Narrowband Frequency Modulation Contd.,

Figure: A phasor comparison of NBFM and AM waves for sinusoidal modulation

(a) NBFM wave (b) AM wave
 i. Narrowband Frequency Modulation:

Generation of NBFM:

Figure: Block diagram of a method for generating a Narrow Band FM signal

Wide-band FM
Figure: Plots of Bessel functions of the first kind for varying orders
 WBFM
Contd.,
Bessel function properties:

1. for all n, both positive and

negative
2. For small values of modulation index β, we have

3.
 WBFM
• Contd.,
The spectrum of an FM signal contains a carrier component
and an infinite set of side frequencies located symmetrically
on either side of the carrier at frequency separations of , 2 ,
…
In this respect, the result is unlike that which prevails in an
AM system, since in an AM system a sinusoidal modulating
signal gives rise to only one pair of side frequencies.
 WBFM Contd.,
• For the special case of β small compared with unity, only the Bessel
coefficients and have significant values, so that the FM signal
is effectively composed of a carrier and a single pair of side frequencies at

• The of the component varies with β

amplitude to
according carrier
. That is, unlike an AM signal, the amplitude
of the carrier component of an FM signal is dependent on the
modulation index β. The physical explanation for this property
is that the envelope of an FM signal is constant, so that the
average power of such a signal developed across a 1-ohm
resistor is also constant, as shown by

The average power of the FM signal is

Figure: Discrete amplitude spectra of an FM signal, normalized with respect to the carrier
amplitude, for the case of sinusoidal modulation of fixed frequency and varying amplitude.
Only the spectra for positive frequencies are shown.
Figure: Discrete amplitude spectra of an FM signal, normalized with respect to the carrier
amplitude, for the case of sinusoidal modulation of varying frequency and fixed amplitude.
Only the spectra for positive frequencies are shown.
 Angle Modulation – Frequency
Modulation

Consider the general carrier vc t = Vc cos ωc t + φc


ω t + φ
c c represents the angle of the carrier.

There are two ways of varying the angle of the carrier.

a) By varying the frequency, c – Frequency Modulation.

b) By varying the phase, c – Phase Modulation

3
2
 Frequency Modulation

In FM, the message signal m(t) controls the frequency fc of the carrier. Consider the carrier

vc t = Vc cos ωc t 

then for FM we may write:

FM signal v s t= Vc cos2π f c + frequency deviationt ,where the frequency deviation will
depend on m(t).
Given that the carrier frequency will change we may write for an instantaneous

carrier signal
Vc cos ωi t = Vc cos 2πf i t = Vc cos φi

where i is the instantaneous angle = ωit = 2πfi t and fi is the instantaneous
frequency. 5
 Frequency Modulation

dφi
Since φi = 2πfit then = 2πf or f = 1 dφ i
i i
dt 2π
dt
i.e. frequency is proportional to the rate of change of angle.

If fc is the unmodulated carrier and fm is the modulating frequency, then we may

deduce that
f i = f c + Δf c 1 dφ i
2π dt
cos ωm t =
fc is the peak deviation of the carrier.

Hence, we have 1 dφ i = fc + Δfc cos ωm t ,i.e. dφi = 2πf + 2πΔf cos ω t
2π dt dt
c c m

  6
 Frequency Modulation

After integration i.e.  ωc + 2πΔf c cos ωm t  dt

2πΔf c sin ωm t

φi = ωc t +
 ωm
Δf c
φi = ωc t + sin ωm t
fm

Hence for the FM signal, v s t = Vc cos φi
  Δf c 
v s t = Vc cos ωc t sin ωm t 
+  fm 
 7
 Frequency Modulation

Δfc
The ratio is called the Modulation Index denoted by  i.e.
fm
Peak frequency deviation
β=
modulating frequency

Note – FM, as implicit in the above equation for vs(t), is a non-linear process – i.e. the
principle of superposition does not apply. The FM signal for a message m(t) as a band of
signals is very complex. Hence, m(t) is usually considered as a 'single tone modulating
signal' of the form

mt = Vm cos ωm t 

36
 Frequency Modulation

 Δf c 
The equation v s t = Vc cosω
 ct sin ωm t  may be expressed as Bessel
+  fm 

series (Bessel functions)


v s t = Vc  J β cos ω
n c + nωm
t of the first kind. Expanding the equation for a few terms
where Jn() are Bessel functions
we have: n=

37
 FM Signal Spectrum

The amplitudes drawn are completely arbitrary, since we have not found any value for
Jn() – this sketch is only to illustrate the spectrum.
38
 Relationship between PM & FM

Phase and frequency modulation are equivalent and interchangeable

39
 Generation of FM signals – Frequency
Modulation

An FM modulator is:

• a voltage-to-frequency converter V/F

• a voltage controlled oscillator VCO

In these devices (V/F or VCO), the output frequency is dependent on the input voltage
amplitude.

40
 V/F Characteristics

Apply VIN , e.g. 0 Volts, +1 Volts, +2 Volts, -1 Volts, -2 Volts, ... and measure the
frequency output for each VIN . The ideal V/F characteristic is a straight line as shown
below.

fc, the frequency output when the input is zero is called the undeviated or nominal carrier
frequency.
Δf
The gradient of the characteristic is called the Frequency Conversion Factor,
denoted by  per Volt.
ΔV
41
 V/F Characteristics

Consider now, an analogue message input, mt = Vm cos ωm t 

As the input m(t) varies from

+Vm  0  Vm
the output frequency will vary from a
maximum, through fc, to a minimum
frequency. 14
 V/F Characteristics

For a straight line, y = c + mx, where c = value of y when x = 0, m = gradient, hence we

may say
f OUT = f c + αV IN

and when VIN = m(t)

f OUT = f c +αmt ,i.e. the deviation depends on m(t).
Considering that maximum and minimum input amplitudes are +Vm and -Vm
respectively, then
f max = f c + αV m
on the diagram on the previous slide.
f min = f c  αV m
The peak-to-peak deviation is fmax – fmin, but more importantly for FM the peak
deviation fc is

Peak Deviation, Δf c = αV m Hence, Modulation Index, β = Δfc = αVm

15
fm
 Summary of the important points of FM

• In FM, the message signal m(t) is assumed to be a single tone frequency,

mt = Vm cos ωm t 

• The FM signal vs(t) from which the spectrum may be obtained as


v s t = Vc  J β cosω
n c + nωm
t
where J n() are Bessel coefficients and Modulation Index, β=
Δf c
=
αVm
n=
fm
•  Hz per Volt is the V/F modulator, gradient or Frequency Conversion Factor,
 per Volt fm
•  is a measure of the change in output frequency for a change in input amplitude.

• Peak Deviation (of the carrier frequency from fc) Δf c = αVm 16

 FM Signal Waveforms

The diagrams below illustrate FM signal waveforms for various inputs

At this stage, an input digital data

sequence, d(t), is introduced –
the output in this case will be FSK,
(Frequency Shift Keying).

45
 FM Signal Waveforms

Assuming d (t)  V for  f1  f c

 V for 1' s 
fOUT  the output ‘switches’
1's f OUT  f 0  f c  V for 
between f 1 and f 0.
 V for 0's 0's 46
 FM Signal Waveforms

The output frequency varies ‘gradually’ from fc to (fc + Vm), through fc to (fc -
Vm) etc. 19
 FM Signal Waveforms

If we plot fOUT as a function of VIN:

In general, m(t) will be a ‘band of signals’, i.e. it will contain amplitude and frequency
variations. Both amplitude and frequency change in m(t) at the input are translated to (just)
frequency changes in the FM output signal, i.e. the amplitude of the output FM signal is
constant.

Amplitude changes at the input are translated to deviation from the carrier at the 20
output. The larger the amplitude, the greater the deviation.
 FM Signal Waveforms

Frequency changes at the input are translated to rate of change of frequency at the output.
An attempt to illustrate this is shown below:

49
 FM Spectrum – Bessel Coefficients

The FM signal spectrum may be determined from

v s (t)  Vc  J n (  ) cos(c 
n m )t
n

The values for the Bessel coefficients, Jn() may be found from
graphs or, preferably, tables of ‘Bessel functions of the first kind’.

50
 FM Spectrum – Bessel Coefficients

Jn()

 = 2.4 =5

In the series for vs(t), n = 0 is the carrier component, i.e. Vc J 0 (  ) cos(  c t) , hence the
n = 0 curve shows how the component at the carrier frequency, fc, varies in amplitude,
with modulation index . 23
 FM Spectrum – Bessel Coefficients

Hence for a given value of modulation index , the values of Jn() may be read off the graph
and hence the component amplitudes (VcJn()) may be determined.

A further way to interpret these curves is to imagine them in 3 dimensions

52
 Examples from the graph

 = 0: When  = 0 the carrier is unmodulated and J0(0) = 1, all other Jn(0) = 0, i.e.

 = 2.4: From the graph (approximately)

J0(2.4) = 0, J1(2.4) = 0.5, J2(2.4) = 0.45 and J3(2.4) = 0.2

53
 Significant Sidebands – Spectrum

As may be seen from the table of Bessel functions, for values of n above a certain value,
the values of Jn() become progressively smaller. In FM the sidebands are considered to
be significant if Jn()  0.01 (1%).
Although the bandwidth of an FM signal is infinite, components with amplitudes
VcJn(), for which Jn() < 0.01 are deemed to be insignificant and may be ignored.

Example: A message signal with a frequency fm Hz modulates a carrier fc to produce FM

with a modulation index  = 1. Sketch the spectrum.
n Jn(1) Amplitude Frequency
0 0.7652 0.7652Vc fc
1 0.4400 0.44Vc fc+fm fc - fm
2 0.1149 0.1149Vc fc+2fm fc - 2fm
3 0.0196 0.0196Vc fc+3fm fc -3 fm
4 0.0025 Insignificant
5 0.0002 Insignificant
54
 Significant Sidebands – Spectrum

As shown, the bandwidth of the spectrum containing significant

components is 6fm, for  = 1.
55
 Significant Sidebands – Spectrum

The table below shows the number of significant sidebands for various modulation
indices () and the associated spectral bandwidth.
 No of sidebands  1% of Bandwidth
unmodulated carrier
0.1 2 2fm
0.3 4 4fm
0.5 4 4fm
1.0 6 6fm
2.0 8 8fm
5.0 16 16fm
10.0 28 28fm

e.g. for  = 5,
16 sidebands
(8 pairs).

56
 Carson’s Rule for FM Bandwidth

An approximation for the bandwidth of an FM signal is given by

BW = 2(Maximum frequency deviation + highest modulated
frequency)

Bandwidth  2(fc  f m ) Carson’s Rule

57
 Narrowband and Wideband FM

Narrowband FM NBFM

From the graph/table of Bessel functions it may be seen that for small , (  0.3) there
is only the carrier and 2 significant sidebands, i.e. BW = 2fm.

FM with   0.3 is referred to as narrowband FM (NBFM) (Note, the bandwidth is

the same as DSBAM).

Wideband FM WBFM

For  > 0.3 there are more than 2 significant sidebands. As  increases the number of
sidebands increases. This is referred to as wideband FM (WBFM).
58
 Narrowband PM & FM

(a) Narrowband PM generator. (b) Narrowband FM signal generator

59
 Problems on FM
An FM signal is given by
Find β, , Bandwidth and power.
 Solution
• Compare the given equation
with
 Problem
• A carrier is modulated with
frequency frequency deviation of 20KHz.
maximum
Message signal frequency is given by 4KHZ.
Find β and bandwidth.
Solution
Question

Consider an angle modulation signal 𝑥(𝑡)=6𝑐𝑜𝑠[2𝜋×103+2sin(8000𝜋𝑡)+4cos(8000𝜋𝑡)]𝑉.

The average power of 𝑥(𝑡) is

(a) 10 W

(b) 18 W

(c) 20 W

(d) 28 W

GATE 2010: 1 Marks

Question

𝑣(𝑡)=5[cos(106𝜋𝑡)−sin(103𝜋𝑡)×sin(106𝜋𝑡)] represents

(a) DSB suppressed carrier signal

(b) AM signal

(c) SSB upper sideband signal

(d) Narrow band FM signal

Question

A device with input 𝑥(𝑡) and output 𝑦(𝑡) is characterized by: 𝑦(𝑡)=𝑥2(𝑡). An FM
signal with frequency deviation of 90 KHz and modulating signal bandwidth of
5 KHz is applied to this device. The bandwidth of the output signal is

(a) 370 KHz

(b) 190 KHz

GATE 2005: 2 Marks
(c) 380 KHz

(d) 95 KHz
Solution

Frequency deviation Δ𝒇=𝟗𝟎𝑲𝑯𝒛

Modulating signal bandwidth = 5

KMz

When FM signal is applied to doubler

frequency deviation doubles.

𝑩.𝑾 = 𝟐(Δ𝒇+𝒇𝒎)
= 𝟐(𝟏𝟖𝟎+𝟓) =𝟑𝟕𝟎 𝑲𝑯𝒛

Option (a) is correct

Question
An FM signal with a modulation index 9 is applied to a frequency tripler.
The modulation index in the output signal will be

(a) 0

(b) 3

(c) 9

(d) 27
GATE 1996: 2 Marks]
Solution
The frequency modulation index β is multiplied by n in n-times frequency
multiplier.

𝑺𝒐, 𝖰′=𝟑×𝟗

= 27

Option (d) is correct

 Comparison between NBFM and
WBFM
S.No Parameter NBFM WBFM
1 Modulation Less than 1 Greater than 1
Index
2 Maximum 5 kHz 75 kHz

Deviation
3 Range of 20 Hz to 3 kHz 20 Hz to 15 kHz
modulating
frequency
4 Bandwidth Small approximately Large about 15 times
same as that of AM greater than that of
BW NBFM.
= 2fm BW = 2(Δf+fm)
5 Applications FM mobile Entertainment
communication like broadcasting (can be
police wireless, used for high quality
ambulance, short range music transmission)
ship to shore
communication etc.
Comparison between Narrowband and Wideband FM
Sr. Parameter NBFM WBFM
No.
1. Modulation Less than or slightly Greater than 1
index greater than 1
2. Maximum 5 kHz 75 kHz
deviation
3. Range of 20 Hz to 3 kHz 20 Hz to 15 kHz
modulating
frequency
4. Maximum Slightly greater than 1 5 to 2500
modulation
index
5. Bandwidth Small approximately Large about 15 times
same as that of AM greater than that of
BW = 2fm NBFM.
BW = 2(+fmmax)
6. Applications FM mobile communication Entertainment
like police wireless, broadcasting (can be used
ambulance, short range for high quality music
ship to shore transmission)
communication etc.
Representation of FM
FM can be represented by two ways:
1. Time domain.
2. Frequency domain.
1.FM in Time Domain
Time domain representation means continuous variation of voltage with respect
to time as shown in Fig. .

Fig. 1 FM in Time Domain

2.FM in Frequency Domain
• Frequency domain is also known as frequency spectrum.
• FM in frequency domain means graph or plot of amplitude versus frequency as
shown in Fig. 2.29.

Fig. 2: FM in Frequency Domain

Pre-emphasis and De-emphasis
• Pre and de-emphasis circuits are used only in frequency modulation.
• Pre-emphasis is used at transmitter and de-emphasis at receiver.
1. Pre-emphasis
• In FM, the noise has a greater effect on the higher modulating frequencies.
• This effect can be reduced by increasing the value of modulation index (mf), for
higher modulating frequencies.
• This can be done by increasing the deviation ‘’ and ‘’ can be
increased by
increasing the amplitude of modulating signal at higher frequencies.
Definition:
The artificial boosting of higher audio modulating frequencies
in
accordance with prearranged response curve is called pre-emphasis.
• Pre-emphasis circuit is a high pass filter as shown in Fig.
As shown in Fig. 1, AF is passed through a high-pass filter, before
applying to FM modulator.
•As modulating frequency (fm) increases,
capacitive reactance decreases and modulatingvoltage
goes on increasing. fm  Voltage of modulating signal
applied to FM modulat Boosting is done according to pre-
arranged curve as shown
in Fig. 2.

Fig. 2: P re-emphasis
Curve
•

The time constant of pre-emphasis is at 50 s in all CCIR standards.

• In systems employing American FM and TV standards, networks having
time constant of 75 sec are used.
• The pre-emphasis is used at FM transmitter as shown in Fig.

Fig. FM Transmitter with Pre-

emphasis
De-emphasis
• De-emphasis circuit is used at FM receiver.
Definition:
The artificial boosting of higher modulating frequencies in
the
process of pre-emphasis is nullified at receiver by process called
de-emphasis.
• De-emphasis circuit is a low pass filter shown in Fig.

Fig. De-emphasis Circuit

 Fig. De-emphasis Curve

As shown in Fig.5, de-modulated FM is applied to the de-emphasis

circuit (low pass filter) where with increase in fm, capacitive reactance Xc
decreases. So that output of de-emphasis circuit also reduces •
Fig. 5 shows the de-emphasis curve corresponding to a time
constant
50 s. A 50 s de-emphasis corresponds to a frequency response curve
that is 3 dB down at frequency given by,
f = 1/ 2πRC
= 1/ 2π x 50x
1000
Comparison between Pre-emphasis
and De-emphasis
Parameter Pre-emphasis De-emphasis

1. Circuit used High pass filter. Low pass filter.

2. Circuit diagram

Fig. 2.36 Fig.

2.37
3. Response curve
Fig. 2.38 Fig. 2.39

4. Time constant T = RC = 50 s T = RC = 50 s

5. Definition Boosting of higher Removal of higher

frequencies frequencies

6. Used at FM transmitter FM receiver.

Comparison between AM and FM
Parameter AM FM

1. Definition Amplitude of carrier is Frequency of carrier is

varied in accordance with varied in accordance with
amplitude of modulating the amplitude of
signal keeping frequency modulating signal keeping
and phase constant. amplitude and phase
constant.
2. Constant Frequency and phase. Amplitude and phase.
parameters

3. Modulated signal

4. Modulation Index
m=Em/Ec
m = / fm

5. Number of Only two Infinite and depends on mf.

sidebands
6. Bandwidth BW = 2fm BW = 2 ( + fm (max))

7. Application MW, SW band broadcasting, Broadcasting FM, audio

video transmission in TV. transmission in TV.
FM GENERATION

There are two methods for generation of FM wave.

Generation of FM

Direct Method
Indirect Method

1.Armstrong Method
1. Reactance Modulator
2. Varactor Diode
Reactance Method

Fig. : Transistorized Reactance

Varactor Diode Modulator

Fig. : Varactor Diode Frequency Modulator

Limitations of Direct Method of FM Generation
1. In this method, it is very difficult to get high order
stability in carrier frequency because in this method the
basic oscillator is not a stable oscillator, as it is controlled by
the modulating signal.

2.Generally in this method we get distorted FM, due

to non-linearity of the varactor diode.
FM Transmitter (Armstrong Method)
FM Generation using IC 566

Fig. : Basic Frequency Modulator using NE566

VCO
Advantages/ Disadvantages/Applications of FM
Advantages of FM
1. Transmitted power remains constant.
2. FM receivers are immune to noise.
3. Good capture effect.
4.No mixing of signals.

Disadvantages of FM
The greatest
disadvantages of FM
are:
1.It uses too much spectrum
space. 2.The bandwidth is wider.
3. The modulation index can
be kept low to
minimize the
bandwidth used.
4. But reduction in M.I. reduces the
noise immunity.
5. Used only at very high
Demodulation of FM Signal

Two steps involved in FM demodulation

•Conversion of FM signal into AM signal, Tank or parallel resonance
circuit converts FM into AM signal.
•An envelope detector is used to extract
modulating signal from modulated signal.
Slope Demodulator:
Demodulation of FM Signal
•The input signal is a frequency modulated signal. It is
applied to the tuned transformer (T1, C1, C2 combination)
which converts the incoming FM signal into AM.
•This AM signal is applied to a simple diode detector
circuit, D1. Here the diode provides the rectification, while
C3 removes any unwanted high frequency components,
and R1 provides a load.
Advantages:
Simple and low cost
Enables FM to be detected without any additional circuitry.
Disadvantages:
Nonlinear operation
Both frequency and amplitude variations are demodulated
and this means that much higher levels of noise
and interference are experienced.
Demodulation of FM Signal

Foster Seeley Demodulator or detector:

Demodulation of FM Signal

•Foster seeley demodulator contains two tuning

circuits and two envelope detectors.

•One section of tuning circuit and envelope

detector works for incoming frequency is greater
than carrier frequency and vice versa for incoming
frequency less than carrier frequency.

•Tuning circuit converts FM signal to AM signal and

Envelope detector extracts message signal from AM
signal.
Demodulation of FM
Signal Ratio Demodulator:

•Ratio detector is similar to Foster seeley

demodulator except of Diode of D2 is reversed
potential divider circuit.
•Potential divider circuit suppress the noise and this
advantage of ratio detector.
Demodulation of FM Signal
PLL Demodulator or detector:
•Phase Locked Loop is closed loop system which
contains Phase detector, VCO and loop filter or LPF
as shown in figure.

•It continuously finds the phase difference between

incoming FM signal and locally generated carrier.
•And based on Phase difference it
generates Modulating signal.
Demodulation of FM Signal

Zero Crossing Demodulator or detector:

Demodulation of FM Signal

•Zero crossing detector contains hard limiter, Zero crossing detector,

Multi vibrator, and Averaging Circuit.

•Hard limiter is two sided independent clipper which converts

continuous FM signal into Digital.

•Zero crossing detector is differentiator which generates spikes

when signal crosses zero and no. of zero crossings is proportional
to modulating signal amplitude.

•Mono stable multivibrator is generates pulses with constant

amplitude and width for each spike.

•Averaging is LPF circuit which integrates pulses and generates

modulating signal.
Super Heterodyne FM Receiver

Antenna: It is passive device which converts electromagnetic signal

into electrical signal.
RF Tuned Amplifier:
It is broad band amplifier which contain tuning circuit and amplifier.
Tuning circuit designed to select 100 stations and amplifier provides
amplification for 20MHz or20 000 KHzband width.
RF tuned amplifier is responsible for sensitivity, selectivity,
Image signal rejection and noise reduction.
Super Heterodyne FM Receiver
Mixer: It is combination of frequency mixer and Band Pass
Filter (BPF).
Frequency generates sum and difference frequency
of incoming signal and locally generated signal.
BPF selects difference frequency at the output whose center
frequency is equal to = 10.7MHz.

Local Oscillator:
It is either Colpits or Hartley oscillator.
It generates carrier frequency 10.7MHz.greater than
incoming carrier frequency to produce constant the or
frequency. fixed

IF Amplifier:
It is narrow band, high gain and fixed frequency amplifier which
provides amplification for 20 MHz band width at center frequency of
10.7 MHz.
Super Heterodyne FM Receiver
Limiter:
It is combination of hard limiter and BPF.
Hard limiter is two sided independent clipper removes the noise
spikes.
Detector or Demodulator or Discriminator:
It is frequency translator circuit which extracts modulating
signal from FM signal.

De-emphasis:
It is LPF which attenuates frequencies of Audio signal from 2
KHz to 20 KHz to get the original modulating signal.
Audio Amplifier:
It is low frequency amplifier which provides amplification at (20-
20K) Hz.

Loud Speaker:
It converts Electrical signal into sound or audio signal.
 Generation of FM Signals
• There essentially two basic methods of generating
are

frequency modulated signals, namely

i. Direct FM (Parameter Variation Method)
ii. Indirect FM (Armstrong’s)

• In the direct method the carrier frequency is directly varied in

accordance with the input baseband signal, which is readily
accomplished using a “Voltage Controlled Oscillator”.

• In the indirect method, the modulating signal is first used to produce a

narrowband FM signal, and frequency multiplication is next used to
increase the frequency deviation to the desired level.
 Methods of FM Generation

Direct Methods Indirect Methods

Direct-FM Varactor Diode Modulator Armstrong

Indirect FM
FM Reactance Modulator
Transmitte
r
Frequency-stabilized Reactance FM
Transmitter

Crossby Direct FM Transmitter

PLL Direct FM Modulator

Indirect
FM

Figure: Block diagram of the indirect method generating a Wideband FM signal

Figure: Block diagram of frequency multiplier

Block diagram of the Armstrong
indirect FM transmitter

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5
Designing an Armstrong indirect
modulator

10
6
Hard Limiter used to improve noise
immunity

(a) Hard limiter and bandpass filter used to remove amplitude variations in FM wave. (b) Hard limiter input-output characteristic.
(c) Hard limiter input and the corresponding output. (d) Hard limiter output as a function of θ. 34
 Direct
FM
Parameter Variation Method:

The principal difficulty here is to maintain a stable

carrier frequency over extended period of time.
 Commercial Broadcasting FM

VHF/FM (Very High Frequency band = 30MHz – 300MHz) radio transmissions, in the band
88MHz to 108MHz have the following parameters:
Max frequency input (e.g. music) 15kHz fm

Deviation 75kHz f c  Vm

Modulation Index  5 f
  f mc

For  = 5 there are 16 sidebands and the FM signal bandwidth is 16fm = 16 x 15kHz
= 240kHz. Applying Carson’s Rule BW = 2(75+15) = 180kHz.

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9
 Demodulation of FM signals

Types of FM Demodulators

Tuned Circuit Slope Phase FM Zero Quadratur

Frequency Detector Difference Detection Crossing FM e FM
Discriminator Detector using PLL Detector Demodulato
r

Single-tuned or Foster Seeley

simple slope Discriminator or
detector Center-tuned

Stagger-tuned
Ratio Detector
or balanced
slope detector
 Comparison between AM and FM
S.No Parameter AM FM
Amplitude of carrier is Frequency of carrier is
varied in accordance varied In accordance
1 Definition with amplitude of with the amplitude of
modulating signal modulating signal
keeping frequency and keeping amplitude and
phase constant phase constant
Constant
2 Frequency and phase Amplitude and phase
parameters

3 Modulation Index µ=Am/Ac β=

4 Bandwidth BW = 2fm BW = 2 ( + fm )

Number of Infinite and depends on

5 Only two
Sidebands β

MW, SW band Broadcasting FM, audio

6 Applications broadcasting, video transmission in TV and
transmission in analog cellular
TV communications systems
 Comments FM

• The FM spectrum contains a carrier component and an infinite number of sidebands at

frequencies fc  nfm (n = 0, 1, 2, …)

 nm )t
FM signal, v s (t )  Vc  J n (  ) cos( c
n

• In FM we refer to sideband pairs not upper and lower sidebands. Carrier or other
components may not be suppressed in FM.

• The relative amplitudes of components in FM depend on the values J (), where

n
Vm
 
thus the component at the carrier frequency depends on m(t), as do all the
fm
other components and none may be suppressed.
11
2
 Comments FM

• Components are significant if Jn()  0.01. For <<1 (  0.3 or less) only J0() and J1()
are significant, i.e. only a carrier and 2 sidebands. Bandwidth is 2fm, similar to DSBAM in
terms of bandwidth - called NBFM.

• Large modulation index means that a large bandwidth is required – called

 fm
WBFM.
f c

• The FM process is non-linear. The principle of superposition does not apply. When m(t) is
a band of signals, e.g. speech or music the analysis is very difficult (impossible?).
Calculations usually assume a single tone frequency equal to the maximum input
frequency. E.g. m(t)  band 20Hz  15kHz, fm = 15kHz is used.

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3
 Power in FM Signals


 nm )t
From the equation for FM v s (t )  Vc 
nJ n (  ) cos( c

we see that the peak value of the components is VcJn() for the nth component.

2  (VRMS )
 V pk  2
then the nth component is
Single normalised average power =  
 2

 Vc J n (  ) 
2 V J
   c n2
 2  (  ) 2

Hence, the total power in the infinite spectrum is

(Vc Jn

Total power PT  
n
(  )) 2
2 38
 Power in FM Signals

By this method we would need to carry out an infinite number of calculations to find
PT. But, considering the waveform, the peak value is Vc, which is constant.

2 V
 V pk   c
Since we know that the RMS value of a sine wave is 
 2 2

Vc  V
2 2

V J
and power = (V RMS ) then we may deduce that
2
P   2   2c 
T
 ( c) n2 2
  n

Hence, if we know Vc for the FM signal, we can find the total power PT for the infinite
39
spectrum with a simple calculation.
 Power in FM Signals

Now consider – if we generate an FM signal, it will contain an infinite number of sidebands.

However, if we wish to transfer this signal, e.g. over a radio or cable, this implies that we
require an infinite bandwidth channel. Even if there was an infinite channel bandwidth it
would not all be allocated to one user. Only a limited bandwidth is available for any particular
signal. Thus we have to make the signal spectrum fit into the available channel bandwidth. We
can think of the signal spectrum as a ‘train’ and the channel bandwidth as a tunnel – obviously
we make the train slightly less wider than the tunnel if we can.

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6
 Power in FM Signals

However, many signals (e.g. FM, square waves, digital signals) contain an infinite number
of components. If we transfer such a signal via a limited channel bandwidth, we will lose
some of the components and the output signal will be distorted. If we put an infinitely wide
train through a tunnel, the train would come out distorted, the question is how much
distortion can be tolerated?
Generally speaking, spectral components decrease in amplitude as we move away from
the spectrum ‘centre’.

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7
 Power in FM Signals

In general distortion may be defined as

Power in total spectrum- Power in Bandlimited

D
spectrum
Power in total spectrum
 PBL
PT
D PT
With reference to FM the minimum channel bandwidth required would be just wide
enough to pass the spectrum of significant components. For a bandlimited FM spectrum,
let a = the number of sideband pairs, e.g. for  = 5, a = 8 pairs
(16 components). Hence, power in the bandlimited spectrum PBL is
a
(V J
PBL = carrier power + sideband powers.
 (  c)) n2
2
 na
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8
 Power in FM Signals

V c2
Since P T  2
a
V c2
2
 cV 2

2
 (J n
2
a
Distortion D na (  )) 1  (J n
2

V c2  na (  ))
2

Also, it is easily seen that the ratio

a
Power in Bandlimited spectrum PBL   (J n 2
= 1 – Distortion
D Power in total spectrum  P
T na(  ))

a
i.e. proportion p fpower in bandlimited spectrum to total power =  (J n
2

n a (  )) 11
9
 Example

Consider NBFM, with  = 0.2. Let Vc = 10 volts. The total power in the infinite
a
2c
spectrum V = 50 Watts, i.e.
2
= 50 Watts.
2  (J n (  ))
na

From the table – the significant components are

n Jn(0.2) Amp = VcJn(0.2) ( Amp) 2

Power =
2
0 0.9900 9.90 49.005
1 0.0995 0.995 0.4950125
PBL = 49.5 Watts

i.e. the carrier + 2 sidebands contain 49.5

50  0.99 or 99% of the total power
12
0
 Example

PT  PBL
Distortion = 50  49.5
PT   0.01 or 1%.
50
Actually, we don’t need to know Vc, i.e. alternatively
1
Distortion = 1  (J n (0.2)) 2 (a = 1)
 n1

D = 1  (0.99) 2  (0.0995) 2  0.01

1
Ratio PBL 
PT
 (J n
n10.99
(  ))2
1D

12
1
 FM Demodulation –General Principle

• An FM demodulator or frequency discriminator is essentially a frequency-to-voltage

converter (F/V). An F/V converter may be realised in several ways, including for example,
tuned circuits and envelope detectors, phase locked loops etc. Demodulators are also
called FM discriminators.

• Before considering some specific types, the general concepts for FM demodulation will be
presented. An F/V converter produces an output voltage, VOUT which is proportional to the
frequency input, fIN.

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2
 FM Demodulation –General Principle

• If the input is FM, the output is m(t), the analogue message signal. If the input is FSK, the
output is d(t), the digital data sequence.

• In this case fIN is the independent variable and VOUT is the dependent variable (x and
y axes respectively). The ideal characteristic is shown below.

We define Vo as the output when fIN = fc, the nominal input frequency. 12
3
 FM Demodulation –General Principle

The gradient V
f is called the voltage conversion factor

i.e. Gradient = Voltage Conversion Factor, K volts per Hz.

Considering y = mx + c etc. then we may say VOUT = V0 + KfIN from the frequency
modulator, and since V0 = VOUT when fIN = fc then we may write

 V0  KVIN
VOUT

where V0 represents a DC offset in VOUT. This DC offset may be removed by level

shifting or AC coupling, or the F/V may be designed with the characteristic shown next

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4
 FM Demodulation –General Principle

The important point is that VOUT = KVIN. If VIN = m(t) then the output contains the
message signal m(t), and the FM signal has been demodulated.

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5
 FM Demodulation –General Principle

1
, so that K = 1 and
Often, but not always, a system designed so that K

VOUT = m(t). A complete system is illustrated.

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6
FM Demodulation –General Principle

12
7
FM Demodulation –General Principle

(a) FM demodulator frequency response. (b) Output of a differentiator to the input FM wave.
(c) FM demodulation by direct differentiation.
52
Effect of interference in PM, FM and FM
with preemphasis-deemphasis (PDE)

12
9
Preemphasis-deemphasis in an FM
system

13
0
 Preemphasis and Deemphasis filter
and its frequency response

(a) Preemphasis filter and (b) its frequency response. (c) Deemphasis filter and
55
(d) its frequency response
PM and FM Demodulator

13
2
 FM Demodulator

(a) Input Signal m(t) (b) FM Demodulator

13
3
 Methods

Tuned Circuit – One method (used in the early days of FM) is to use the slope of a
tuned circuit in conjunction with an envelope detector.

13
4
 Methods

• The tuned circuit is tuned so the fc, the nominal input frequency, is on the slope, not at the
centre of the tuned circuits. As the FM signal deviates about fc on the tuned circuit slope, the
amplitude of the output varies in proportion to the deviation from fc. Thus the FM signal is
effectively converted to AM. This is then envelope detected by the diode etc to recover the
message signal.

• Note: In the early days, most radio links were AM (DSBAM). When FM came along, with its
advantages, the links could not be changed to FM quickly. Hence, NBFM was used (with a
spectral bandwidth = 2fm, i.e. the same as DSBAM). The carrier frequency fc was chosen
and the IF filters were tuned so that fc fell on the slope of the filter response. Most FM links
now are wideband with much better demodulators.

• A better method is to use 2 similar circuits, known as a Foster-Seeley Discriminator

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5
 Foster-Seeley Discriminator

This gives the composite characteristics shown. Diode D2 effectively inverts the f2
tuned circuit response. This gives the characteristic ‘S’ type detector.

13
6
 Phase Locked Loops PLL

• A PLL is a closed loop system which may be used for FM demodulation

• A block diagram for a PLL is shown below.

• Note the similarity with a synchronous demodulator. The loop comprises a multiplier, a low
pass filter and VCO (V/F converter as used in a frequency modulator).
13
7
 Phase Locked Loops PLL

• The input fIN is applied to the multiplier and multiplied with the VCO frequency output
fO, to produce  = (fIN + fO) and  = (fIN – fO).

• The low pass filter passes only (fIN – fO) to give VOUT which is proportional to (fIN –
fO).

• If fIN  fO but not equal, VOUT = VIN, fIN – fO is a low frequency (beat frequency) signal
to the VCO.

• This signal, VIN, causes the VCO output frequency fO to vary and move towards fIN.

• When fIN = fO, VIN (fIN – fO) is approximately constant (DC) and fO is held constant, i.e
locked to fIN.

• As fIN changes, due to deviation in FM, fO tracks or follows fIN. VOUT = VIN changes to
drive fO to track fIN.

• is therefore proportional to the deviation and contains the message signal m(t).
VOUT
13
8
Thank You

13
9