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Atmosphere
Atmosphere
ATMOSPHERE
The Evolution of Earth’s Atmosphere
• , CO, N2, SO2, SO3) were
Gases composing Earth’s
earliest atmosphere (H2O,
H2, CO2 vented to the
atmosphere by volcanic
outgassing
What is weather?
What is climate?
How do they differ?
Dew Point
Dew point is the temperature at which air becomes saturated
with moisture and condensation begins to form
Type and amount of cloudiness
Type and amount of precipitation
Wind speed and direction
Components of Dry Air
Nitrogen: N2
78% per volume
Removed from the atmosphere by nitrogen-fixing soil
bacteria
Returned to the atmosphere by decay of plant and
animal matter
Oxygen: O2
21% per volume
Removed from the atmosphere by
respiration
oxidation reactions
burning
decay of organic matter
Returned to the atmosphere by photosynthesis
Components of Dry Air
Argon: Ar
~ 0.93% per volume
An inert gas
Figure 11.2
Variable Components of the Atmosphere
Water Vapor
0 - 4% per volume
Source of all clouds and precipitation
Absorbs heat when changing from ice to liquid and
liquid to vapor
Releases heat when changing from vapor to liquid and
liquid to ice
Aerosols
Microscopic particles of dust, soil, ash, soot, smoke,
pollen, salts
Serve as condensation nuclei for clouds and fog
Absorb and reflect incoming solar radiation
Cause sunrises and sunsets to be red
Variable Components of the Atmosphere
Ozone
O3
Concentrated in the stratosphere
Absorbs UV radiation from the Sun
Reacts with chlorine from Chlorinated Fluorocarbons
(CFC’s)
Pollutants
NOx, SO2, CFC, Volatile Organics, Low Level O3,
Concentrated in the troposphere
Causes smog
Radiates high wavelength radiation
Greenhouse gases trap in heat
Causes Acid Rain (SO2 + H2O > H2SO4
Northeastern China
Two Aerosols:
Dust and Human
Generated
Pollution over
eastern Asia
Figure 11.3
Ozone Distribution in the Southern Hemisphere
Figure 11.5
Properties of Water
• Specific Heat for water (1 calorie) >
Specific Heat for Rock (land)
• Water is transparent (more warming to
depth)
• Water mixes
• Evaporation loses heat
Properties of Water
Latent Heat (calories/gram)
Thermal Structure of the Atmosphere
The atmosphere is divided into four thermal layers
Thermosphere
Rarefied air in the upper-most reaches of the atmosphere
Where temperature increases with increasing altitude
Layer in which the aurora occur
Mesosphere
Layer between the stratopause and mesopause
Where temperature decreases with increasing altitude
Stratosphere
Layer between the tropopause and stratopause
Where temperature increases with increasing altitude
Troposphere
Layer between Earth’s surface and the tropopause
Where temperature decreases with increasing altitude (Adiabatic
Rate)
The layer in which we live, in which most weather phenomena occur
Thermal
Structure of
the
Atmosphere
Figure 11.7
Effect of Increasing Altitude on Air in the Troposphere
Air cools at the dry adiabatic rate (1ºC per 100 meters of rise) until it is
cooled to its dew point the temperature to which air must be cooled to
become saturated with moisture)
After reaching its dew point as the saturated air continues to rise, it
cools at the wet adiabatic rate (0.5ºC per 100 meters of rise) and
condensation begins to occur
Mechanisms of Heat Transfer
Conduction
Transfer of heat through
matter by molecular or
atomic activity (negligible for
air, low for land mass, high Conduction
for water) Convection
Convection
Transfer of heat by
movement of matter from
one place to another
(important for both air and
water)
Radiation Radiation
Movement of energy through
space by electromagnetic
waves (delivery system for
Sun’s energy)
What happens to incoming solar radiation?
Incoming solar radiation can be:
Scattered
• Gases and dust particles in the atmosphere scatter the rays.
Scattering changes the direction but not the wavelength
Reflected
• The fraction of total radiation reflected from a surface is called albedo
Absorbed
• The atmosphere is transparent to incoming visible solar radiation
• Nitrogen is a poor absorber of incoming solar radiation
• Oxygen and ozone are effective absorbers of incoming UV radiation
• High temperature in the stratosphere is due to ozone absorption of UV
• Water vapor also effectively absorbs solar radiation
• But for the most part, the atmosphere is heated primarily by solar
energy that is first absorbed by earth’s surface and then re-radiated
Paths Taken by Incoming Solar Radiation
30% lost to space by
Reflection and scattering
5% backscattered
To space by the
atmosphere
20%
Reflected
From
clouds
20% absorbed by
Atmosphere 5% reflected from
And clouds Land-sea surface
50% absorbed by
Land and sea Figure 11.17
Factors that Control Temperature and Climate
Latitude, Tilt of Earth’s Axis, and Seasons
Affect the angle of the Sun’s rays and length of daylight, darkness
Altitude
The higher the altitude, the cooler the climate
Figure 11.11
Effect of Changes in the Sun’s Angle
on Intensity of Solar Radiation
Figure 11.10
Effect of Tilt of Earth’s Axis, Latitude, and Seasons
on Length of Daylight and Darkness
Figure 11.13
Warm and Cold Ocean Surface Currents
Figure 10.2
Maritime Influence on Temperature
Figure 11.23
Major Air Mass Source Regions
Effect of Altitude on Temperature
Figure 11.6
Effect of Cloud
Albedo on
Temperature
Effect of Cloud
Cover on
Temperature
Figure 11.27
Effect of Greenhouse Gases
Figure 11.19
Global Temperature Patterns
Temperatures decrease from the tropics toward the poles
Isotherms (lines connecting points of equal temperature) shift
with the seasons
The greatest variations in temperatures (the warmest and coldest
temperatures) occur over land
The smallest variations in temperatures occur over the oceans
Thus,
Isotherms are straighter, more stable in the Southern
Hemisphere because there is more ocean, less land
Isotherms are not as straight, are less stable in the Northern
Hemisphere because there is less ocean, more land
In summary, annual temperature ranges
Are smallest near equator
Increase with an increase in latitude
Are greatest over continents
Are smallest over oceans
Effect of Latitude on Global Temperatures:
January
Figure 11.28
Effect of Latitude on Global Temperatures:
July
Figure 11.29
Summary of Factors Affecting
Temperature and Climate