PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

OF SOLUTIONS
General Chemistry 2
 Coral reefs are being threatened by climate change, oceanic
acidification, and water pollution, all of which change the
composition of the solution known as seawater.

Dissolved oxygen in seawater is critical for sea creatures, but

as the oceans warm, oxygen becomes less soluble.

As the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere

increases, the concentration of carbon dioxide in the oceans
increases, contributing to oceanic acidification.

Coral reefs are particularly sensitive to the acidification of

the ocean since the exoskeletons of the coral polyps are
soluble in acidic solutions.

Did you Humans contribute to the changing of seawater

composition by allowing agricultural runoff and other forms
know? of pollution to affect our oceans.
 SOLUTION
Solution: a homogenous mixture of two or more
substances in a single phase; a solute and a
solvent.
Solute: a substance that is the portion of
a solution that is dissolved.
Solvent: a substance that is the portion of
a solution that dissolves the solute;
determines the phase of the solution.
How does SOLVENT dissolves?
• The solvent has enough energy to break the
surface tension or the bonds of the solute.
• The strongest of all is the metallic bonds,
followed by the hydrogen, ion-dipole, dipole-
dipole, and finally, the London dispersion
forces.
 Types of Solutions
A saturated solution contains the maximum amount of a
solute that will dissolve in a given solvent at a specific
temperature.
An unsaturated solution contains less solute than the solvent
has the capacity to dissolve at a specific temperature.

A supersaturated solution contains more solute than is present

in a saturated solution at a specific temperature.

Sodium acetate crystals rapidly form when a seed crystal is

added to a supersaturated solution of sodium acetate.
A Molecular View of the Solution Process
A Molecular View of the Solution Process
A Molecular View of the Solution Process

STEP 1:
The separation of solvent molecules
A Molecular View of the Solution Process

STEP 2:
This entails the separation of solute
molecules
These steps require energy input to
break attractive
intermolecular forces; therefore,
they are endothermic.
A Molecular View of the Solution Process

STEP 3:
The solvent and solute molecules mix.
This step may be exothermic or
endothermic
A Molecular View of the Solution Process

STEP 1:
The separation of solvent molecules
STEP 2:
This entails the separation of solute
molecules
These steps require energy input to
break attractive
intermolecular forces; therefore,
they are endothermic.

STEP 3:
The solvent and solute molecules mix.
This step may be exothermic or
endothermic
 Enthalpy of Solution
• A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances
and can either be in the gas phase, the liquid phase, or the solid
phase.
• The enthalpy change of solution refers to the amount of heat that is
released or absorbed during the dissolving process (at constant
pressure).
• This enthalpy of solution (ΔHsolution) can either be positive
(endothermic) or negative (exothermic).
• When understanding the enthalpy of solution, it is easiest to think
of a hypothetical three-step process happening between two
substances.
• One substance is the solute, let’s call that A. The other substance
is solvent, let’s call that B.
 Enthalpy of Solution
Step 1: Breaking up the Solute

• The first process that happens deals only with the solute,
A, which requires breaking all intramolecular forces holding
it together. This means the solute molecules separate from
each other. The enthalpy of this process is called ΔH1.
• This since this is always an endothermic process
(requiring energy to break interactions), then ΔH1 > 0
 Enthalpy of Solution
Step 2: Breaking up the Solvent

• The second process is very similar to the first step. Much like how the
solute, A, needed to break apart from itself, the solvent, B, also
needs to overcome the intermolecular forces holding it together. This
causes the solvent molecules to separate from each other. The
enthalpy of this process is called ΔH2
• Like the first step, this reaction is always endothermic (ΔH2>0)
because energy is required to break the interaction between the B
molecules.
 Enthalpy of Solution
Step 3: Combining the Two Together

• The third process is when substance A and substance B mix for a

solution. The separated solute molecules and the separated solvent
molecules join together to form a solution. This solution will contain
one mole of solute A in an infinite amount of solvent B. The enthalpy
of combining these two substances to form the solution is ΔH3
• and is an exothermic reaction (releasing heat since interactions are
formed) with ΔH3 < 0.
 Enthalpy of Solution
• The enthalpy of the solution can be expressed as the sum of
enthalpy changes for each step:

• So the enthalpy of solution can either be endothermic, exothermic or

neither ΔHsolution=0), depending on how much heat is required or
release in each step.
• If ΔHsolution =0, then the solution is called an ideal solution
• If ΔHsolution > 0 or ΔHsolution < 0, then these solutions are called non-
ideal solutions.
 Solubility
“like dissolves like”

• A measure of the amount of a solute that will dissolve in a solvent at a

. specific temperature.
• Two substances with similar intermolecular forces are likely to be soluble in each
other
• non-polar molecules are soluble in non-polar solvents
CCl4 in C6H6
• polar molecules are soluble in polar solvents
C2H5OH in H2O
• ionic compounds are more soluble in polar solvents
NaCl in H2O or NH3 (l)
 Solubility “like dissolves like”

• polar molecules are soluble in polar solvents

. C2H5OH in H2O
 Solubility
“like dissolves like”
• ionic compounds are more soluble in polar solvents
. NaCl in H2O or NH3 (l)

Solvation is the process in which an ion or a molecule

is surrounded by solvent molecules arranged in a
specific manner. When the solvent is water, the process
is called hydration.
CONCENTRATION
UNITS
 Concentration Units

The concentration of a solution is the amount of solute

present in a given quantity of solvent or solution.
 Types of Concentration Units
Percent by Mass
 Types of Concentration Units
Molarity (M)
 Types of Concentration Units
Molality (m)
 Molality (m)

For example, to prepare a 1 molal, or 1 m, sodium

sulfate (Na2SO4) aqueous solution, we need to
dissolve 1 mole (142.0 g) of the substance in 1000
g (1 kg) of water. Depending on the nature of the
solute-solvent interaction, the final volume of the
solution will be either greater or less than 1000 mL.
It is also possible, though very unlikely that the
final volume could be equal to 1000 mL.
Concentration Calculation
Example 1
Example 2
Example 2
 Example 3
What is the molality of a 5.86 M ethanol (C2H5OH) solution
whose density is 0.927 g/mL?
moles of solute moles of solute
m = M =
mass of solvent (kg) liters of solution

Assume 1 L of solution:
5.86 moles ethanol = 270 g ethanol
927 g of solution (1000 mL x 0.927 g/mL)

mass of solvent = mass of solution – mass of solute

= 927 g – 270 g = 657 g = 0.657 kg

moles of solute 5.86 moles C2H5OH

m = = = 8.92 m
mass of solvent (kg) 0.657 kg solvent
Example 4
 ASSIGNMENT
• What is the molarity of a potassium chloride
solution that has a volume of 400 ml and contains
85 g of KCl?

• Sodium thiosulfate, Na2S2O3, is used as a fixer

when developing photographic film. What is the
mass in grams of Na2S2O3 needed to make 100ml
of a 0.250M solution?