17/09/23

AQA – Amount of Substance


What the spec says
• Relative atomic mass and relative molecular
mass in terms of 12C.
• The term relative formula mass will be used
for ionic compounds.
• Students should be able to:
• define relative atomic mass (Ar)
• define relative molecular mass (Mr).
• The Avogadro constant as the number of
particles in a mole.
• The mole as applied to electrons, atoms,
molecules, ions, formulas and equations.
• The concentration of a substance in solution,
measured in mol dm–3.
• Students should be able to carry out
calculations:
• using the Avogadro constant
• using mass of substance, Mr, and amount in
moles
• using concentration, volume and amount of
substance in a solution. Students will not be
expected to recall the value of the Avogadro
constant.
The ideal gas equation pV = nRT with the
variables in SI units.
Students should be able to use the equation
in calculations.
Students will not be expected to recall the
value of the gas constant, R.
Empirical formula is the simplest whole
number ratio of atoms of each element in a
compound.
Molecular formula is the actual number of
atoms of each element in a compound.
The relationship between empirical formula
and molecular formula.
Students should be able to:
• calculate empirical formula from data giving
composition by mass or percentage by mass
• calculate molecular formula from the
empirical formula and relative molecular
mass.
17/09/23
Equations (full and ionic).
Percentage atom economy is:
molecular mass of desired product ÷ sum of
molecular masses of all reactants ×100
Economic, ethical and environmental advantages
for society and for industry of developing
chemical processes with a high atom economy.
Students should be able to:
• write balanced equations for reactions studied
• balance equations for unfamiliar reactions
when reactants and products are specified.
Students should be able to use balanced
equations to calculate:
• masses
• volumes of gases
• percentage yields
• percentage atom economies
• concentrations and volumes for reactions in
solutions.
 17/09/23

The Mole – Avogadro’s Number

The Mole is just a way of measuring the amount of a substance in chemistry. Shortened to
‘mol’
Contains 6.02×1023 atoms/molecules. This is also known as Avogadro’s Number.
1 Mole of H2O contains 6.02×1023 molecules of H2O.
E
OL

1 Mole of Fe contains 6.02×1023 atoms of Fe.

M
1

We can calculate the number of particles in a substance using –

Number of particles = Avogadro’s Number × Number of Moles

EXAMPLE
How many particles make up 0.67 moles of Ammonia (NH3)? Be prepared to
Number of particles = Avogadro’s Number × Number of Moles rearrange this
Number of particles = 6.02×1023 × 0.67 formula!
Number of particles = 4.03×1023
 17/09/23

The Mole – Mass & Mr

The number of moles can be calculated from Mass & Mr/Ar

Number of moles = Mass (grams)

Mr OR Ar
EXAMPLE
Calculate the number of moles of 23g of Gold. Give your answer to 2 significant figures. Be prepared to
Number of moles = Mass / Ar rearrange this
Number of moles = 23 / 197 formula!
Number of moles = 0.12mol (to 2 s.f)

Look in your question… if you have any 2 of the components in the equation you can use it!
 17/09/23

The Mole – Solutions

The number of moles of a substance in solution can be calculated from Concentration & Volume

Number of moles = Concentration (moldm-3) × Volume (dm3)

Be prepared to
rearrange this
EXAMPLE formula!
Calculate the number of moles of 200cm3 of 0.35moldm-3 HCl.
Number of moles = Concentration × Volume
Number of moles = 0.35 × 200×10-3 You are likely to get your
Number of moles = 0.07mol volume in cm3. To convert to
dm3 just divide by 1000 or
simply add ×10-3 to the end
Look in your question… if you have any 2 of the components in the equation of the number.
you can use it!
 17/09/23

The Mole – Ideal Gas Equation Be prepared to

rearrange this
The number of moles in a specific volume of a gas
formula!

Volume (m3)
Temperature (K)
pV = nRT
Pressure (Pa)
Gas Constant (8.31 JK-1mol-1)
Moles (mol)
EXAMPLE
IMPORTANT!
Calculate the volume in cm3 of 0.36 moles of a gas at 100kPa and 298K. • When using the ideal gas equation
pV=nRT Rearrange to give V = nRT/p you should use the units above.
V = 0.36 × 8.31 × 298 / 100,000 • Make sure you can re-arrange the
V = 8.91×10-3m3 formula properly
V = 8.91×10-3 × 1,000,000 = 8910cm3 • The Gas Constant will be given to
you (8.31)
Why 1,000,000? Look at the next slide for converting units • Standard conditions – 298K,
100kPa
 17/09/23
10dm in a m
10cm in a dm
100cm in a m Converting Units For every dimension
you add a ‘0’ from the
× 10 × 10 previous dimension

10×10 = ×100
m dm
× 100
cm × 100
1 Dimension

100×100 = ×10,000

m2 dm
× 1000
2
cm2 × 1000
2 Dimension (Area)

1000×1000 = ×1,000,000

m 3
dm 3
cm 3 3 Dimension
(Volume)

If you are converting the other way you just divide by the same number.
 17/09/23

Ionic Equations
Ionic equations show the ions that are formed in solution and show which particles are reacting

Here is a standard balanced equation for an acid reacting with a base. The equation
Normally –
underneath is the FULL ionic equation
Acids, Bases
and Salts form
ions in solution H2SO4 + 2KOH  K2SO4 + 2H2O H2O isn’t an ion
so just leave it
as it is.

2H+ + SO42- + 2K+ + 2OH-  2K+ + SO42- + 2H2O

Cancel any ions SO42- AND K+ are called Spectator Ions.
that appear on They don’t get involved in the
BOTH sides of the reaction.
equation to form
the SIMPLEST 2H+ +2OH-  2H2O In the final ionic equation the charges must
ionic equation balance on the left and right of the equation
 17/09/23

Using Equations to work out masses

Balanced equations can be used to work out theoretical masses

Calculating a theoretical mass from an equation e.g. –

State Symbols How much CaO can be made when 34g of Ca is burnt completely in oxygen?
(s) – Solids
(l) – Liquids
(g) – Gases
2Ca(s) + O2(g)  2CaO(s) 1. Write out equation
and balance it.

(aq) – Aqueous
(anything dissolved 40×2 = 80 56×2 = 112 2. Work out Mr/Ar of
species involved. Write
in water) these as mass in g.
80g = 112g
÷80 ÷80 3. Divide the Ca side by
1g = 1.4g 80 to find 1g then
This is the multiply by 34 to get
×34 ×34
theoretical
mass of CaO we
34g = 47.6g 34g. Do the same for
CaO side.
can produce.
 17/09/23
Using Equations to work out volumes of
gases
Balanced equations can be used to work out the volume of gases
Calculating a volume of a gas from an equation e.g. –
What volume of H2 is produced when 12g of Potassium reacts with Water at 100kPa of
pressure and 298K. Gas constant is 8.31JK-1mol-1

2K(s) + 2H O  2KOH
2 (l) (aq) +H 2(g)
1. Write out equation
and balance it.

Moles = Mass(g) / Ar Moles 2. Work out number of

moles of Potassium.
Moles = 12g/39 = 0.31moles of K
2 moles of K react to produce 1 mole of H2 3. Use equation to find
out the molar ratio of
Moles of H2 is 0.31/2 = 0.155 moles of H2 K:H2

pV=nRT Re-arrange to get V=nRT/p 4. Use the Ideal Gas

equation to work out
V = 0.155×8.31×298/100,000 SO V = 3.84×10-3m3 the volume.

Titrations
Titrations can be used to work out the concentration of an acid or alkali
Have acid or alkali in
burette with a known
concentration.
Indicators Add the chemical in the
Phenolphthalein burette to the conical flask
Acid – Colourless until the indicator changes
Alkali – Pink colour. This is known as the
Methyl Orange end point. Add drop by drop
near end point.
Acid – Red
Alkali - Yellow
Have an acid or alkali with
an unknown concentration
but known volume in
conical flask. Add a few
drops of indicator too.
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Read how much chemical was
added from the burette to
neutralise the chemical in the
conical flask. Read the bottom
of the meniscus. Always read
at eye level.
This reads
20cm3 NOT
19.8cm3
Record your results to
2 decimal places and
repeat until you get 2
results that are
concordant (within
0.10cm3 of each other).
 Putting ×10-3 17/09/23
means the
same as ÷1000 Titration Calculations Volumes MUST
be converted
into dm3 first!
Titrations can be used to work out the concentration of an acid or alkali

18.3cm3 of 0.25moldm-3 HCl was required to neutralise 25cm3 of KOH.

Calculate the concentration of KOH.
HCl in
here
HCl + KOH  KCl + H2O 1. Write out equation
and balance it.

Moles = Concentration (moldm-3) × Volume (dm3) 2. Calculate the number

Moles = 0.25 × 18.3×10-3 = 4.58×10-3 mol of moles of HCl

3. Use the equation to

1:1 ratio between HCl and KOH
find out molar ratio in
Moles of HCl = Moles of KOH order to work out moles
KOH in KOH = 4.58×10-3 mol of KOH.
here
Concentration (moldm-3) = Moles/Volume (dm3) 4. Now calculate
Concentration = 4.58×10-3/25×10-3 = 0.18 moldm-3 concentration using
Conc = Moles/Vol
 Putting ×10-3 17/09/23
means the
same as ÷1000 Titration Calculations Volumes MUST
be converted
into dm3 first!
Titrations can also be used to work out the volume of an acid or alkali

15.7cm3 of 0.450moldm-3 H2SO4 was required to neutralise 0.120moldm-3 of

NaOH. Calculate the volume of NaOH being neutralised in cm3.
H2SO4 1. Write out equation
H2SO4 + 2NaOH  Na2SO4 + 2H2O and balance it.
in
here Moles = Concentration (moldm-3) × Volume (dm3) 2. Calculate the number
Moles = 0.45 × 15.7×10-3 = 7.07×10-3 mol of moles of H2SO4

3. Use the equation to

1:2 ratio between H2SO4 and NaOH
find out molar ratio in
Moles of NaOH = 2 × Moles of H2SO4 order to work out moles
NaOH NaOH = 2 × 7.07×10-3 = 0.0141 mol of NaOH (Stoichiometry)
in here
Volume (dm3) = Moles/Concentration (moldm-3) 4. Now calculate volume
Volume = 0.0141/0.120 = 0.118 dm3 using Vol = Moles/Conc
Volume in cm3 = 0.118 × 1000 = 118cm3 ÷ 1000 to get cm3
 To work out the molecular formula
just work out Mr of empirical formula, 17/09/23
divide by Mr of molecular formula. Use
this number to multiply all the atoms
in the empirical formula Empirical Formula
The simplest whole number ratio of elements in a compound

A compound contains 23.3% Magnesium, 30.7% Sulfur and 46.0% Oxygen. What is the empirical formula of
this compound?

Mg S O 1. Write out the

elements involved
2. Write the
23.3g 30.7g 46.0g percentages as masses
24.3 32.1 16.0 3. Divide these by
Relative Atomic Mass to
= 0.96 = 0.96 = 2.88 get number of moles
0.96 0.96 0.96 4. Divide all the
= 1 = 1 = 3 numbers by the smallest
number of moles
Empirical Formula = MgSO3
 17/09/23

Empirical Formula
The simplest whole number ratio of elements in a compound

A hydrocarbon combusts completely to make 0.845g of CO2 and 0.173g of H2O. What is the empirical formula
of the hydrocarbon?

The Carbon in CO2 and CO2 H2O 1. Write H20 and CO2 as
the Hydrogen in H2O headings
can only come from 0.845g 0.173g 2. Write the masses of
the Hydrocarbon
44.0 18.0 each molecule

= 0.019 = 0.0096 3. Divide these by

1 mole of CO2 has 1 mole of C atoms.
Original hydrocarbon must have
0.019 moles of C atoms
0.019
=1
0.019
Empirical Formula = CH
1 mole of H20 has 2 moles of H atoms. Relative Molecular Mass
Original hydrocarbon must have to get number of moles
0.0096×2 = 0.0192 moles of H atoms 4. Divide the number of
0.019 C and H atoms by the
=1
0.019 smallest number of
moles
 17/09/23
You have to calculate this for
yourself!
Percentage Yield
Percentage Yield = Actual Yield / Theoretical Yield × 100

The theoretical yield is the amount In a reaction involving the complete combustion of Calcium 32.6g of
of a product produced assuming NO Calcium Oxide was produced. The theoretical mass is 47.6g. Calculate the
products are lost and ALL reactants percentage yield of this reaction.
react fully. Click this button to see
how to work this out.
PRESS

Re
Percentage yield = Actual Yield / Theoretical Yield × 100
me
mb
er
y
Percentage Yield = 32.6g / 47.6g × 100
100 ield i
%. s NE
VE
Percentage Yield = 68.5%
R
 17/09/23

Atom Economy
Atom economy is how efficient a reaction is.

% Atom Economy = molecular mass of desired product Fe2O3 + 1.5C  2Fe + 1.5CO2
× 100
sum of molecular masses of all reactants

Atomic Mass of desired product

= 2×55.8 = 111.6
Iron oxide (Fe2O3) can be reduced using Carbon (coke) to make pure
Iron and Carbon Dioxide. Calculate the atom economy in the extraction Sum of Molecular Masses of all
of Iron. reactants =
(2×55.8)+(3×16.0)+(1.5×12.0)
Remember! =177.6
Multiply by 2 as
you have 2 moles
from the equation
Atom Economy = 111.6/177.6 ×100
Atom Economy = 62.8%
 17/09/23

Importance of Atom Economy

Atom economy is how efficient a reaction is.

High atom Companies will try

economies produce to use reactions that
less waste and so tend towards 100%
benefit the atom economy
environment
Atom
Economy
High atom Higher atom
economies means economy means less
that raw materials by-products so less
are used more time and money
efficiently. This is spent separating
more sustainable. these from the
desirable product.