MODULE - II

AC Circuits

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 Calculation of voltage, current and power in

1.Single phase AC circuits

2.Three phase AC circuits

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 Single phase AC source
single source w.r.t neutral supplies power to a load

Three phase AC sources

Three phases (sources) in star or delta supply power to a load

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 as a function of its argument

as a function of time.

Considering one cycle,

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 Mathematical Representation of AC quantities

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 One complete series of values is called a cycle.

The time taken for an alternating quantity to complete one cycle is

called the period or the periodic time, T, of the waveform.

The number of cycles completed in one second is called the

frequency, f, of the supply and is measured in hertz, Hz.

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Instantaneous values are the values of the alternating quantities at any
instant of time.

The largest value reached in a half cycle is called the peak value or the
maximum value or the crest value or the amplitude of the waveform.

Since the AC voltage and current are time varying, their values are
given over particular time interval, generally for one time period.

The average or mean value of a symmetrical alternating quantity,

(such as a sine wave), is the average value measured over a half cycle,
(since over a complete cycle the average value is zero).

The area under the curve is found by approximate methods such as

the trapezoidal rule, the mid-ordinate rule or Simpson’s rule.

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 Average Value

The average value of a time varying quantity is the average of the

instantaneous value for a particular time period. Usually, for periodic
waveforms the average is taken for one time period. In alternating
quantities, the average value for one time period is zero because in
one period, it has equal positive and negative values. Therefore, for
alternating quantities the average is taken over half the period.

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 RMS Value

The rms value of a time varying quantity is the equivalent dc value of that
quantity. (The rms value is also known as effective value.)
The rms value is obtained by taking square root of this mean value.
Let, V = Rms value of sinusoidal voltage or alternating voltage.
Now, by definition of rms value we can write,

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The effective value of an alternating current is that current which will
produce the same heating effect as an equivalent direct current. The
effective value is called the root mean square (rms) value

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In the case of a resistor, the current across the resistor is in phase with the voltage source.

But in the case of an inductor or a capacitor, the current either lags or leads the voltage
source by a certain value.

In order to relate the current and the voltage in the latter case, we use the concept of
phasors and phasor diagram.

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 Representation of AC quantities

A sinusoidal voltage and current

v(t )  Vm sin(t   )
are represented in THREE different forms

V  Vm  Polar form (called as PHASOR)

Rectangular form
V  Vm cos   jVm sin 
Exponential form
V  Vm e j

Basically a rotating vector, simply called a “Phasor” is a scaled line whose length
represents an AC quantity that has both magnitude (“peak amplitude”) and direction
(“phase”) which is “frozen” at some point in time. ... Then a Phasor is a quantity that
has both “Magnitude” and “Direction”.

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 Phasor Representation in polar coordinates

V is thus the phasor representation of the sinusoid v(t), In other

words, a phasor is a complex representation (polar coordinate
representation) of sinusoid.

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 Representation of AC quantity by Rotating vector

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Phasor diagram is a plot of phasors in complex plane. It is a simplest
representation to understand

1.Phase angle

2.Phase angle difference

between various AC quantities in a circuit.

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 Phasor diagram

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 Phase difference

v2 leads v1 by φ

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For leading angle – measure the angle from one phasor to another in
Anti-Clock Wise direction which gives the phase angle difference
less than 180°.

For lagging angle – measure the angle from one phasor to another in
Clock Wise direction which gives the phase angle difference less than
180°.

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P1.

P2.

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P3.

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In order to compare v1 and v2,we must express them in the same form.

the phase difference between v1 and v2 is 30◦.

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P4.

P5.

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 Signals in terms of sin

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 Signals in terms of cos

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 POWER

∴ In dc circuits,

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 Power, Energy and Power Factor in AC Circuits

i.e., the power is the product of voltage and current. In circuits excited by
dc sources the voltage and current are constant and so the power in
constant. This constant power is called average power or power and it is
denoted by P.
 In circuits excited by ac sources, the voltage and current are sinusoidal
quantities which varies with time. When voltage and current are time varying
quantities, the power is also a time varying quantity.

For time varying quantities, the power is defined as average over a period of
time. Since the average value of sinusoidal voltage and current are zero, we can
take, the rms value of voltage and current.

We know that, the rms values of voltage and current are complex and so the
power is also complex. “The complex power is denoted by S and it is defined as
the product of rms voltage and the conjugate of rms current”.

Various powers in AC circuits Unit

1.Instantaneous power (p) - VA

2.Complex power (S = P ± j Q) - VA
3.Apparent Power [abs(S)] - VA
4.True or Active or Real or Average power (P) - Watts
5.Reactive power (Q) - VAR
In AC circuits, the complex power of any element (source or load) is given by

Complex power
absorbed by load

Complex power
supplied by source
V  Vrms  v
I  I rms  i

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 Complex power in polar from

V  Vrms  v
I  I rms  i

I *  I rms    i
S  (Vrms  v )( I rms    i )  Vrms I rms  v   i

S  Vrms I rms   Vrms I rms cos   jVrms I rms sin 

S  P  jQ

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 The real part of S is called active power or simply power. The imaginary
part of S is called reactive power. The power is denoted by P and expressed in the
units of watts, W. The reactive power is denoted by Q and expressed in the units
of volt-ampere-reactive, VAR.

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 In ac circuits, the phase angle ϕ may be positive, zero or negative.
(Remember that ϕ is phase difference between V and I)

When ϕ is positive,
• the current lags voltage.
• the circuit is inductive.
• the active power is positive.
• the reactive power is positive.

When ϕ is zero,
• the current is in-phase with voltage.
• the circuit is resistive.
• the active power is positive.
• the reactive power is zero.

When ϕ is negative,
• the current leads the voltage.
• the circuit is capacitive.
• the active power is positive.
• the reactive power is negative.

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The ratio of active power and apparent power is defined as power factor”.
The power factor is a measure of active power in the apparent power.

P = S cos ϕ
 V  Vrms  v
Complex power in terms of V and I
I  I rms  i
*
S V I

Complex power in terms of Z

2
V 2
S or S I Z
*
Z

Complex power should be calculated using RMS values of V and I

2
*
V *V
Proof S V I V *  *
Z Z
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 PHASOR RELATIONSHIPS FOR CIRCUIT ELEMENTS

Purely resistive a.c. circuit

Purely inductive a.c. circuit

Purely capacitive a.c. circuit

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 Voltage-current relations for a resistor

If the current through a resistor R is

The voltage across it is given by

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 Phasor diagram for the resistor.

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 Power in a resistor
Rms value of voltage across resistance, V = V ∠0°
Rms value of current through resistance, I = I ∠0°

The instantaneous value of power in the resistance is given by the product of the
instantaneous value of voltage and current in the resistance.
Instantaneous power,

Instantaneous power is
squared sine wave and so
the instantaneous power is
always positive (because on
squaring the negative cycle it
becomes positive)
Average or Real power
 Voltage-current relations for a inductor

For the inductor L, the current through it is

The voltage across the inductor is

We can write the voltage as

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 and

showing that the voltage has a magnitude of ωLIm and a phase of

φ+90◦. The voltage and current are 90◦ out of phase. Specifically, the
current lags the voltage by 90◦.

Phasor diagram for inductor.

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 Power in an inductor
The instantaneous value of power in the inductance is given by the product of the
instantaneous value of voltage and current in the inductance.
Instantaneous power
Average or Real power

The instantaneous power is also a

sinusoidal quantity whose frequency is
double that of voltage or current
The inductance consumes only reactive power and “the active power in the pure
inductance is zero.” The reactive power of inductance is positive which means that
it absorbs reactive power.
 Voltage-current relations for a Capacitor
For the capacitor C, assume the voltage across it is

v = Vm cos(ωt + φ).
The current through the capacitor is

showing that the current and

voltage are 90◦ out of phase.
To be specific, the current
leads the voltage by 90◦.

Phasor diagram for Capacitor.

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 Power in a capacitor
Instantaneous power

the instantaneous power is also a sinusoidal quantity whose frequency is double

that of voltage or current
Average or Real power
The capacitance has only reactive power and “the active power in the pure
capacitance is zero”. The reactive power of capacitance is negative which means
that it delivers reactive power.

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 R–L series A.C. circuit

Impedance Z  R  jX L

Voltage V  IZ
 I ( R  jX L )
 I R  j L I
Assuming I  I m 0
In phasor domain

2 2 L 1
V  I m R  (L)  tan
R
V  Vm 

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In terms of voltages

V  I R  jX L I V  VR  jVL

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If each side of the voltage triangle in Figure is divided by current I, then
the ‘impedance triangle’ is derived.

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 Power in R–L series A.C. circuit
In phasor domain

Complex power in terms of V and I V  Vrms 

*
S  V I  (Vrms  ) X ( I rms 0) I  I rms 0
 VI Where angle Φ is positive
in RL series ckt
 VI cos   jVI sin 
 P  jQ
Complex power in terms of Z
2
V 2
S or S I Z
*
Z

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 R–C series A.C. circuit

Impedance Z  R  jX C
 j 
Voltage V  I Z  I R 
 C 

In phasor domain
Assuming XC
2 2 1
I  I m 0 V  I R Interms
X C ofvoltages
tan
R

V  Vm 

In terms of voltages

V  VR  jVC
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 Power in R–C series A.C. circuit

Complex power in terms of V and I V  Vrms   

*
S  V I  (Vrms    ) X ( I rms 0) I  I rms 0
Where angle Φ is negative
 VI   in RC series ckt
 VI cos   jVI sin 
 P  jQ
Complex power in terms of Z
2
V or S I Z
2

S *
Z
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58
 R-L–C series A.C. circuit
In phasor domain

Impedance Z  R  j( X L  X C )

Voltage V  IZ

Assuming In phasor domain

I  I m 0 2 2 1 X L  XC
V  I R  ( X L  X C )  tan
R
In terms of voltages

V  VR  j (VL  VC )

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 When XL = XC , the applied voltage V and
the current I are in phase. This effect is
called series resonance.

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 Power in R–L-C series A.C. circuit

Complex power in terms of V and I

V  Vrms   
*
S  V I  (Vrms    ) X ( I rms 0) I  I rms 0
 VI   Where angle Φ may be ±ve

 VI cos   jVI sin 

 P  jQ

Complex power in terms of Z

2
V 2
S *
or S I Z
Z

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P.6.

P.7.

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P.8

P.9

P.10

P.11

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P.11

R  24 Ω

1
XC   24 Ω
C
Z  R  jX C  24  j 26 Ω
Given Vrms  220 V

Hence, supply voltage V  Vrms 0 V

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 V 2200
(i) Supply Current I 
Z 24  j 26

I  4.217  j 4.568

 6 .21747.3 A

(ii) Voltage across each element

VR  I R  (4.217  j 4.568).( 24)

 101.208  j109.632  149.247.29 V

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 VC  I ( jX C )  (4.217  j 4.568).( j 26)
 118 .768  j109.642  161.64  42.712 V

(iii) Phase angle between supply voltage and supply current

Supply voltage V  2200

I  6.21747.3
supply current leads supply voltage by 47.3°

 v  0  i  47.3
 v   i  47.3
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(iv) Power factor

Power factor angle    v   i  47.3

cos( )  cos(47.3)  0.678 Leading

(v) a) Power consumed by resistor

*
PR  VR I  (149.247.29).(6.217  47.3)  927.576 watts
2
VR149.2 2
or PR    927.576 watts
R 24
b) Power consumed by capacitor
2
VC 161.64 2
QC    1005 VAR
XC 26

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Total power consumed

S  P  jQ  927.576  j1005 VA

Watts VAR

S  S   1367.63  47.3
2
* Vs 2
Or directly using S  Vs I s  *
 Is Z
Z

Apparent power = 1367.63 VA

Active power = 927.576 W

Reactive power = 1005 VAR (capacitor)

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(vi) Phasor diagram Impedance

Voltage Power

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 *
S  V I  (Vrms    ) X ( I rms 0)
 VI  
 VI cos   jVI sin 
 P  jQ

Apparent power SV I

Real power P  V I cos 
Reactive power Q  V I sin 

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P.12.
The circuit shown in Figure dissipates an
active power of 400 W and has a power
factor of 0.766 lagging. Determine (a) the
apparent power, (b) the reactive power,
(c) the value and phase of current I, and
(d) the value of impedance Z.
Ans: 522.2 VA, 335.7 var lagging,
5.222 A, I = 5.222, -10° A.

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09/19/23 73
 Electrical Power Supply systems

1.DC supply – DC generator, Fuel cell, solar, battery

2.Single phase AC supply - 1Φ AC generator

3.Three phase AC supply - 3Φ AC generator

3Φ AC generator
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When the rotor rotates, voltages are induced in three coils or windings

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 Consider a residential load = 5000 W (single phase loads)

What is the total current drawn by this residential load at 1Φ,

230 V supply?

Approximately = 5000/230 = 21.74 A

If the same residential load is equally shared to 3Φ supply,

then what is the current drawn by each phase?

Power/phase= 5000/3 = 1667 W (approximately)

Current/phase = 7.25 A

Now, compare the conductor size….

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 Three-phase systems
Advantages of three-phase systems over single-phase supplies
include:
(i) For a given amount of power transmitted through a system, the
three-phase system requires conductors with a smaller cross sectional
area. This means a saving of copper (or aluminium) and thus the original
installation costs are less.
(ii) The instantaneous power in a three-phase system can be constant
(not pulsating).
(iii) It is also used to drive large motors and other heavy loads.

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 Three phase source

Three phase load

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 Three phase four wire 415 V, 50Hz supply

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 V p , Ip

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Source: Load:
Phase current (Ia, Ib, Ic), Phase current (Iab, Ibc, Ica),
Phase voltage (Van, Vbn, Vcn), Phase voltage (Va’b’, Vb’c’, Vc’a’),

line current (Ia, Ib, Ic)

line voltage (Vab, Vbc, Vca)
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A three phase balanced circuit can be solved without applying
mesh or nodal method.

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09/19/23 Phasor diagram for star connection 85
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 Z Y  12  j15

I AN  ?
Van  2300
I aA  ?
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 Vab  2300 I AB  ?
Z   12  j15 I aA  ?
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 Van  2300 I a 'b '  ?
Z   12  j15 I aa '  ?
09/19/23 90
 REPEATED
Star connection
VR  VP 0

VY  VP   120

VB  VP   240

(i) The three line conductors are connected to a load and the outlets
from the loads are joined together at N to form the neutral point
or the star point.
(ii) The voltages, VR, VY and VB are called phase voltages or line to
neutral voltages. Phase voltages are generally denoted by Vp.
(iii) The voltages, VRY, VYB and VBR are called line voltages.

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(iv) The phase currents (generally denoted by I p) are equal to their
respective line currents IR, IY and IB, i.e. for a star connection:

(vi) The line voltage, VRY,

VRY = VR − VY (VY is negative since it is in the opposite direction
to VRY).

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 REPEATED
Delta connection
I RY  I P 0

I YB  I P   120
I BR  I P   240

(i) It can be seen that the line voltages V RY,VYB and VBR are the
respective phase voltages, i.e. for a delta connection:

(ii) IR = IRY - IBR = IRY + (- IBR)

 I P 0  I P   240  3I P   30

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 POWER IN A BALANCED SYSTEM
For a Y-connected load, the phase voltages are

Vp has been defined as the rms value

of the phase voltage.

the phase currents lag behind their corresponding

phase voltages by θ. Thus,

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The total instantaneous power in the load is the sum of the
instantaneous powers in the three phases; that is,

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The total instantaneous power in the load is the sum of the
instantaneous powers in the three phases; that is,

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 The average power per phase Pp for either the Δ-connected load
or the Y-connected load is p/3, or

The total average power is the sum of the average powers in the phases:

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Similarly, the total reactive power is

Hence, the total complex power is

or

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 For balanced three phase load

S1 = S2 =S3 = S

Total power consumed by three phase load = 3 X S

For unbalanced three phase load

S1 ≠ S2 ≠ S3
Total power consumed by three phase load = S1+S2+S3

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The total complex power is

or

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P36.
Calculate the line currents in the three-wire Y-Y system of Fig.

where
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Since the source voltages in Fig. are in positive sequence and the line
currents are also in positive sequence,

P37.
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P38.

P39.

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P40.
Determine the total average power, reactive power, and complex power
at the source and at the load.

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09/19/23 106
P44.
Three identical coils, each of resistance 15 Ω and inductance 42 mH are
connected (a) in star and (b) in delta to a 415 V, 50 Hz, 3-phase supply.
Determine the total power dissipated in each case.

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09/19/23 109
P41
Calculate the line currents and complex power consumed by the
load.

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 Measurement of power in three-phase systems

(i) One-wattmeter method for a balanced load

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(ii) Two-wattmeter method for balanced or unbalanced loads

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 The power factor may be determined from:

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Proof:

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 Phase angle between Vab and Ia = 30˚+ θ

-Vbn
Vcn Vab

120˚
30˚
-120˚ θ
-120˚ Van
Ia

Vbn

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 Phase angle between Vcb and Ic = 30˚- θ

Vcb

30˚- θ
30˚
Ic -Vbn
Vcn
θ

120˚

-120˚
-120˚ Van

Vbn

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Similarly, we can show that the average power read by wattmeter 2 is

Shows that the sum of the wattmeter readings gives the total average
power,

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shows that the difference of the wattmeter readings is proportional to
the total reactive power, or

09/19/23 118
the total apparent power can be obtained as

Thus, the two wattmeter method not only provides the total real and
reactive powers, it can also be used to compute the power factor.

we conclude that:

1. If P2 = P1, the load is resistive.

2. If P2 > P1, the load is inductive.
3. If P2 < P1, the load is capacitive.

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Sl No Phase angle Φ p.f. Remarks

W1 and W2 are equal and positive. Load is

1 0° 1 purely resistive

2 0° - 60° 1- 0.5 W1 and W2 are positive and unequal

W1 is positive and One of the wattmeter

3 60° 0.5
W2= 0 reads zero

W1 is positive and
4 60° - 90° 0.5 - 0
W2 is negative
Purely inductive or
capacitive. Readings
are unequal and
opposite in sign

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(iii) Three-wattmeter method for a three-phase, 4-wire system
for balanced and unbalanced loads.

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P45.
Two wattmeters connected to a 3-phase motor indicate the total power
input to be 12 kW. The power factor is 0.6. Determine the readings of
each wattmeter.

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09/19/23 123
P46.
Two wattmeters indicate P1=10 kW and P2=3 kW respectively when
connected to measure the input power to a 3-phase balanced star load,
the reverse switch being operated on the meter indicating the 3 kW
reading. Determine (a) the input power and (b) the load power factor.

Since the reversing switch on the wattmeter had to be operated the

3 kW reading is taken as -3 kW.

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