KIN400 Lecture 9-9-19

Chapter 3
EXERCISE PHYSIOLOGY
Theory and Application to Fitness and Performance 10th Edition
Scott K. Powers and Edward T. Howley
Bioenergetics
Chapter 3
Presentation prepared by:

Brian B. Parr, Ph.D., Scott K. Powers, Ph.D., Ed.D., and Edward T. Howley, Ph.D.
Copyright © 2018 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 3
Lecture Outline
 Cell Structure
 Biological Energy Transformation
 Fuels for Exercise
 High-Energy Phosphates
 Bioenergetics
 Aerobic ATP Tally
 Efficiency of Oxidative Phosphorylation
 Control of Bioenergetics
 Interaction Between Aerobic/Anaerobic ATP Production
Chapter 3
Introduction-key terms
 Metabolism
– Sum of all chemical reactions that occur in the body
– Anabolic reactions
 Synthesis of molecules
– Catabolic reactions
 Breakdown of molecules
 Bioenergetics
– Process of converting foodstuffs (fats, proteins,
carbohydrates) into usable energy for cell work
Chapter 3 Cell Structure
Cell Structure
 Cell membrane (sarcolemma)
– Semipermeable membrane that separates the cell from
the extracellular environment
 Nucleus
– Contains genes that regulate protein synthesis
 Molecular biology
 Cytoplasm (sarcoplasm)
– Fluid portion of cell
– Contains organelles
 Mitochondria
A Muscle Cell and Its Major

Organelles
Chapter 3 A Closer Look 3.1
Molecular Biology and Exercise Science

 Study of molecular structures and events underlying biological
processes
– Relationship between genes and cellular characteristics they
control
 Genes code for specific cellular proteins
– Process of protein synthesis
 Exercise training results in modifications in protein synthesis
– Strength training results in increased synthesis of muscle
contractile protein
 Molecular biology provides “tools” for understanding the cellular
response to exercise
Chapter 3 Biological Energy Transformation
Cellular Chemical Reactions

 Endergonic reactions
– Require energy to be added to the reactants
– Endothermic
 Exergonic reactions
– Release energy
– Exothermic
 Coupled reactions
– Liberation of energy in an exergonic reaction drives an
endergonic reaction
The Breakdown of Glucose:

An Exergonic Reaction
Coupled Reactions
The energy given off by the exergonic reaction

powers the endergonic reaction
Take home messages (1)

 Metabolism is defined as the total of all cellular reactions that occur in the
body; this includes both the synthesis of molecules and the breakdown of
molecules.
 Cell structure includes the following three major parts: (1) cell membrane
(called sarcolemma in muscle), (2) nucleus, and (3) cytoplasm (called
sarcoplasm in muscle).
 The cell membrane provides a protective barrier between the interior of
the cell and the extracellular fluid.
 Genes located within the nucleus regulate protein synthesis within the
cell.
Take home messages (2)

 Cytoplasm: fluid portion of the cell that contains
numerous organelles and enzymes.
 Endergonic reactions require energy to be
added.
 Exergonic reactions are reactions that give off
energy.
 Coupled reactions are reactions that are
connected, with the release of energy in one
reaction being used to drive the second reaction.
Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
 Oxidation
– Removing an electron
 Reduction
– Addition of an electron
 Oxidation and reduction are always coupled
reactions
 Often involves the transfer of hydrogen atoms rather
than free electrons
– Hydrogen atom contains one electron
– A molecule that loses both a hydrogen and an electron;
therefore, this molecule is oxidized
Roles of NAD and FAD in electron

transport
 Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD)
– Oxidized form: NAD+
– Reduced form: NADH
 Flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD)
– Oxidized form: FAD
– Reduced form: FADH2
 Both play an important role in transfer of electrons
– Carrier molecules during bioenergetic reactions
Structural Formulas for NAD+, NADH,

FAD, and FADH2
(a) When NAD reacts

with 2 H, it binds to
one of them and
accepts the
electron from the
other to form
NADH.
(b) When FAD reacts

with 2 H, it binds to
both of them to
form FADH2.
Enzymes
 Catalysts that regulate the speed of reactions
– Lower the energy of activation
 Factors that regulate enzyme activity
– Temperature
– pH
 Interact with specific substrates
– Lock and key model
Enzymes Catalyze Reactions
Enzymes lower the energy of activation
Factors That Alter Enzyme Activity

 Temperature
– A small rise in body temperature increases enzyme
activity
– Exercise results in increased body temperature
– Large increase in body temperature (>41oC) can
denature enzymes and decrease activity
 pH
– Changes in pH (increase or decrease) can decrease
enzyme activity
– High intensity exercise decreases muscle pH
The Effect of Body Temperature on

Enzyme Activity
The Effect of pH on Enzyme Activity
Enzyme-catalyzed reaction
Two substrates Enzyme catalyzes Product molecule

fit into enzyme’s the chemical produced and
active site reaction enzyme is unaltered
Classification of Enzymes
 Almost all enzyme names end in –ase
 Kinases
– Add a phosphate group
 Dehydrogenases
– Remove hydrogen atoms
 Oxidases
– Catalyze oxidation-reduction reactions involving
oxygen
 Isomerases
– Rearrangement of the structure of molecules
Chapter 3 Clinical Applications 3.1
Diagnostic Value of Measuring

Enzyme Activity in the Blood
 Damaged cells release enzymes into the blood

– Enzyme levels in blood serve as “biomarkers” of
disease and/or tissue damage
 Diagnostic application
– Elevated lactate dehydogenase or creatine kinase
in the blood may indicate a myocardial infarction
Chapter 3 Clinical Applications 3.1
Examples of the Diagnostic Value of

Enzymes in Blood
Take home messages

 Oxidation is the process of removing an electron from an atom or
molecule.
 Reduction is the addition of an electron to an atom or molecule.
 Oxidation-reduction reactions are always coupled because a molecule
cannot be oxidized unless it donates and electron to another atom.
 Enzymes serve as catalysts for chemical reactions and therefore, regulate
the speed of chemical reactions.
 Enzymes are classified into categories based upon the type of reaction
that the enzyme performs.
 Temperature and pH are key factors that regulate enzyme activity.
Individual enzymes have an optimal temperature and pH at which they are
most active.
Chapter 3 Fuels for Exercise
Fuels for exercise-Carbohydrates

 Include monosaccharides, disaccharides, and
polysaccharides
 Glucose
– Blood sugar
 Glycogen
– Storage form of glucose in liver and muscle
 Synthesized by enzyme glycogen synthase
– Glycogenolysis
 Breakdown of glycogen to glucose
Fuels for exercise-Fats

 Fatty acids
– Primary type of fat used by skeletal muscle
 Triglycerides
– Storage form of fat in muscle and adipose tissue
– Broken down into glycerol and fatty acids via lipolysis
 Phospholipids
– Not used as an energy source
 Steroids
– Derived from cholesterol-not an energy source
– Needed to synthesize sex hormones
Fuels for exercise-Protein

 Composed of amino acids
 Some can be converted to glucose in the liver
– Gluconeogenesis
 Others can be converted to metabolic
intermediates
– Contribute as a fuel in muscle
 Overall, protein is not a primary energy source
during exercise
Take home messages

 The body uses carbohydrate, fat, and protein nutrients consumed in the
diet to provide the necessary energy to maintain cellular activities both at
rest and during exercise.
 During exercise, the primary nutrients used for energy are fats and
carbohydrates, with protein contributing a relatively small amount of the
total energy used.
 Glucose is stored in animal cells as a polysaccharide called glycogen.
 Fatty acids are the primary form of fat used as an energy source in cells.
Fatty acids are stored as triglycerides in muscle and fat cells.
 Proteins are composed of amino acids, and 20 different amino acids are
required to form the various proteins contained in cells. The use of protein
as an energy source requires that cellular proteins be broken down to
amino acids.
Chapter 3 High-Energy Phosphates
High-Energy Phosphates
 Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
– Consists of adenine, ribose, and three linked
phosphates
 Synthesis
ADP + Pi  ATP
 Breakdown
ATP ATPase
ADP + Pi + Energy
Structure of ATP
ATP is the Universal Energy Donor

in Cells
Chapter 3 Bioenergetics
Bioenergetics
 Formation of ATP
– Phosphocreatine (PC) breakdown
– Degradation of glucose and glycogen
 Glycolysis
– Oxidative formation of ATP
 Anaerobic pathways
– Do not involve O2
– PC breakdown and glycolysis
 Aerobic pathways
– Require O2
– Oxidative phosphorylation
Anaerobic ATP Production
 ATP-PC system or “phosphagen system”

– Immediate source of ATP
PC + ADP Creatine kinase

ATP + C
 Glycolysis
– Glucose  2 pyruvic acid or 2 lactic acid
– Energy investment phase
 Requires 2 ATP
– Energy generation phase
 Produces 4 ATP, 2 NADH, and 2 pyruvate or 2 lactate
Chapter 3 The Winning Edge 3.1
Does Creatine Supplementation

Improve Exercise Performance?
 Depletion of PC may limit short-term, high-intensity exercise
 Creatine monohydrate supplementation
– Increased muscle PC stores
– Some studies show improved performance in short-term, high-
intensity exercise
 Inconsistent results may be due to water retention and weight gain
– Increased strength and fat-free mass with resistance training
 Creatine supplementation does not appear to pose health risks
 Variability in supplement purity exists
The Two Phases of Glycolysis
Interaction Between Blood Glucose

and Muscle Glycogen in Glycolysis
Glycolysis: Energy Investment Phase
Glycolysis: Energy Generation Phase
Chapter 3
Glycolysis
 http://www.viddler.com/embed/d1b00de0/?f=1&player=arp
eggio&secret=59037080
Hydrogen and Electron Carrier

Molecules
 Transport hydrogens and associated electrons
– To mitochondria for ATP generation (aerobic)
– To convert pyruvic acid to lactic acid (anaerobic)
 Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD)
NAD+ + 2H  NADH
 Flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD)

FAD + 2H  FADH2
NADH is “Shuttled” into Mitochondria
 NADH produced in glycolysis must be converted

back to NAD
– By converting pyruvic acid to lactic acid
– By “shuttling” H+ into the mitochondria
 A specific transport system shuttles H+ across
the mitochondrial membrane
– Located in the mitochondrial membrane
Conversion of Pyruvic Acid to

Lactic Acid
The addition of two H to pyruvic acid forms NAD

and lactic acid
Catalyzed by lactate dehydrogenase (LDH)

Lactic Acid or Lactate?

 Terms lactic acid and lactate used interchangeably
– Lactate is the conjugate base of lactic acid
 Lactic acid is produced in glycolysis
– Rapidly disassociates to lactate and H+
The ionization of lactic acid forms the

conjugate base called lactate
Take homes messages

 The immediate source of energy for muscular contraction is the high-
energy phosphate ATP. ATP is degraded via the enzyme ATPase as
follows:
ATP ADP + Pi + Energy

ATPase
 Formation of ATP without the use of O2 is termed anaerobic metabolism.
The production of ATP using O2 is referred to as aerobic metabolism.
 Muscle cells can produce ATP by any one or a combination of three
metabolic pathways: (1) ATP-PC system, (2) glycolysis, (3) oxidative
formation of ATP.
 The ATP-PC system and glycolysis are two anaerobic metabolic pathways
that produce ATP without O2.
Aerobic ATP Production

 Krebs cycle (citric acid cycle)
– Pyruvic acid (3 C) is converted to acetyl-CoA (2 C)
 CO2 is given off
– Acetyl-CoA combines with oxaloacetate (4 C) to form citrate
(6 C)
– Citrate is metabolized to oxaloacetate
 Two CO2 molecules given off
– Produces three molecules of NADH and one FADH2
– Also forms one molecule of GTP
 Produces one ATP
Steps Leading to
Oxidative Phosphorylation
The Citric acid (aka, Krebs Cycle)
Fats and Proteins in Aerobic Metabolism
 Fats
– Triglycerides  glycerol and fatty acids
– Fatty acids  acetyl-CoA
 Beta-oxidation
– Glycerol is not an important muscle fuel during
exercise
 Protein
– Broken down into amino acids
– Converted to glucose, pyruvic acid, acetyl-CoA, and
Krebs cycle intermediates
Relationship Between the Metabolism

of Proteins, Carbohydrates, and Fats
Aerobic ATP Production

 Electron transport chain
– Oxidative phosphorylation occurs in the
mitochondria
– Electrons removed from NADH and FADH are
passed along a series of carriers (cytochromes) to
produce ATP
 Each NADH produces 2.5 ATP
 Each FADH produces 1.5 ATP
– Called the chemiosmotic hypothesis
– H+ from NADH and FADH are accepted by O2 to
form water
The Chemiosmotic Hypothesis of ATP

Formation
 Electron transport chain results in pumping of H+
ions across inner mitochondrial membrane
– Results in electrochemical (i.e., H+) gradient across
membrane
 Energy released to form ATP as H+ ions diffuse
back across the membrane
ADP + Pi  ATP
Oxidative Phosphorylation
Chapter 3
Electron Transport Chain
 http://www.viddler.com/embed/10238eb/?f=1&player=arpe
ggio&secret=59037080
Beta Oxidation is the Process of

Converting Fatty Acids to Acetyl-CoA
 Breakdown of triglycerides releases fatty acids
 Fatty acids must be converted to acetyl-CoA to be
used as a fuel
– Activated fatty acid (fatty acyl-CoA) enters mitochondrion
– Fatty acid “chopped” into 2 carbon fragments forming
acetyl-CoA
 Acetyl-CoA enters the citric acid cycle and is used for
energy
Beta Oxidation
Chapter 3
Take homes messages

 Oxidative phosphorylation (i.e., aerobic ATP production) occurs in the
mitochondria as a result of a complex interaction between the Citric acid
cycle and the electron transport chain.
 The primary role of the Citric acid cycle is to complete the oxidation of
substrates and form NADH and FADH to enter the electron transport
chain.
 The end result of the electron transport chain is the formation of ATP and
water. Water is formed by oxygen-accepting electrons and the
associated hydrogens.
 Therefore, oxygen consumption in the body occurs because oxygen is
used as the final acceptor of electrons during aerobic metabolism.
Chapter 3 Research Focus 3.1
Free Radicals are Formed in the Mitochondria

 Free radicals are molecules with an unpaired electron in outer orbital
 Free radicals can be produced by the leakage of electrons along the
electron transport chain
 Free radicals react with other molecules in the cell
– Damages the molecule combining with the radical
 Aerobic exercise promotes the production of free radicals in the working
muscles
– Exercise-induced free radical production is not due to oxidative
phosphorylation in the mitochondria
A New Look at the ATP Balance Sheet

 Historically, 1 glucose produced 38 ATP
 Recent research indicates that 1 glucose
produces 32 ATP
– Energy provided by NADH and FADH also used
to transport ATP out of mitochondria
– 3 H+ must pass through H+ channels to produce
1 ATP
– Another H+ needed to move the ATP across the
mitochondrial membrane
Chapter 3 Aerobic ATP Tally
Aerobic ATP Tally Per Glucose

Molecule
Chapter 3
Chapter 3 Efficiency of Oxidative Phosphorylation
Efficiency of Oxidative
Phosphorylation
 One mole of ATP has energy yield of 7.3 kcal
 32 moles of ATP are formed from one mole of glucose
 Potential energy released from one mole of glucose is 686 kcal/mole
32 moles ATP/mole glucose x 7.3 kcal/mole ATP

 Overall efficiency of aerobic respiration is 34% x 100 = 34%
– 66% of energy686 kcal/mole glucose
released as heat
Chapter 3 Efficiency of Oxidative Phosphorylation
Take home messages

 The aerobic metabolism of one molecule of
glucose results in the production of 32 ATP
molecules, whereas the aerobic yield for
glycogen breakdown results in net production of
33 ATP.
 The overall efficiency of aerobic respiration is
approximately 34%, with the remaining 66% of
energy being released as heat.
Chapter 3 Control of Bioenergetics
Control of Bioenergetics
 Rate-limiting enzymes
– An enzyme that regulates the rate of a metabolic
pathway
 Modulators of rate-limiting enzymes
– Levels of ATP and ADP+Pi
 High levels of ATP inhibit ATP production
 Low levels of ATP and high levels of ADP+Pi stimulate
ATP production
– Calcium stimulates aerobic ATP production
Example of a Rate-Limiting Enzyme
Chapter 3
Feedback Inhibition
 http://www.viddler.com/embed/c54050fe/?f=1&player=arp
eggio&secret=59037080
Rate-Limiting Enzymes of Metabolic

Pathways
Chapter 3
Chapter 3
Take home messages

 Metabolism is regulated by enzymatic activity. An enzyme that regulates a
metabolic pathway is termed the rate-limiting enzyme.
 The rate-limiting enzyme for glycolysis is phosphofructokinase, while the
rate-limiting enzymes for the Citric acid cycle and electron transport chain
are isocitrate dehydrogenase and cytochrome oxidase, respectively.
 In general, cellular levels of ATP and ADP+Pi regulate the rate of metabolic
pathways involved in the production of ATP.
 Increases in free calcium can stimulate aerobic energy metabolism by
activating enzymes in the Citric acid cycle.
Chapter 3 Interaction Between Aerobic/Anaerobic ATP Production
Interaction Between Aerobic/Anaerobic

ATP Production
 Energy to perform exercise comes from an interaction
between aerobic and anaerobic pathways
 Depends on duration and intensity of exercise
– Short-term, high-intensity activities
 Greater contribution of anaerobic energy systems
– Long-term, low to moderate-intensity exercise
 Majority of ATP produced from aerobic sources
Chapter 3 The Winning Edge 3.2
Contribution of Aerobic/Anaerobic ATP

Production During Sporting Events
Chapter 3 Interaction Between Aerobic/Anaerobic ATP Production
Take home messages
 Energy to perform exercise is derived from an

interaction of anaerobic and aerobic pathways.
 In general, the shorter the activity (high
intensity), the greater the contribution of
anaerobic energy production.
 Long-duration activities (e.g., low to moderate
intensity) utilize ATP produced from aerobic
sources.
Chapter 3
Study Questions
1. List and briefly discuss the functions of the three major
components of cell structure.
2. Briefly explain the concept of coupled reactions.
3. Define the following terms: (1) bioenergetics, (2) endergonic
reactions, and (3) exergonic reactions.
4. Discuss the role of enzymes as catalysts. What is meant by the
expression “energy of activation”?
5. Where do glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, and oxidative
phosphorylation take place in the cell?
6. Define the terms glycogen, glycogenolysis, and glycolysis.
Chapter 3
Study Questions
7. What are high-energy phosphates? Explain the statement that
“ATP is the universal energy donor.”
8. Define the terms aerobic and anaerobic.
9. Briefly discuss the function of glycolysis in bioenergetics. What
role does NAD+ play in glycolysis?
10. Discuss the operation of the Krebs cycle and the electron
transport chain in the aerobic production of ATP. What is the
function of NAD+ and FAD in these pathways?
11. What is the efficiency of the aerobic degradation of glucose?
Chapter 3
Study Questions
12. What is the role of oxygen in aerobic metabolism?
13. What are the rate-limiting enzymes for the following metabolic
pathways? ATP-PC system? Glycolysis? Krebs cycle? Electron
transport chain?
14. Briefly discuss the interaction of anaerobic versus aerobic ATP
production during exercise.
15. Discuss the chemiosmotic theory of ATP production.
16. Briefly discuss the impact of changes in both temperature and pH
on enzyme activity.
17. Discuss the relationship between lactic acid and lactate.
Chapter 3
Lab: Resting Blood Pressure and Heart

Rate
 HR is generally expressed as  Bradycardia- defined as
# of ventricular contractions Resting HR less than 60
 Expressed at BPM (Beats per – Commonly found in
Minute) aerobically trained
 Normal range: 60-100 individuals
– Avg. Sedentary Men: 72 – Due to a shift towards
Women: 76 parasympathetic nervous
system on the heart rather
than sympathetic
– Can result from drugs,
injury, or diseases
Chapter 3
Lab
 Tachycardia- defined as  Heart Rate can be affected by:

resting HR greater than 100 – Drugs
– May indicate underlying – Body position
heart disease – Dietary and hydration
– Supplements or drugs may – Noise, temp, humidity, etc.
cause this
Chapter 3
Lab
 Measure HR
– Palpate- touch
 Radial- thumb side of wrist, we will use this site especially during exercise
 Carotid- groove on side of neck
– Auscultation- listen
Chapter 3
Lab
 Blood Pressure
– Depends on volume of blood moving through blood vessels
– Diameter or size of blood vessel
 This determines vascular resistance
– Expressed as Systolic/Diastolic (mmHg)

 Systolic- pressure of blood against vessel walls when ventricles are
contracting
 Diastolic- pressure of blood against vessel walls when ventricles relax to
fill with blood
Chapter 3
Lab
 Blood Pressure Guidelines at Rest

– Normal: <120/80
– Prehypertension: 120-139/80-89
– Stage 1 Hypertension: 140-159/90-99
– Stage 2 Hypertension: ≥160/≥100
 Measure using stethoscope
Chapter 3
Lab
 Place blood pressure cuff on left upper arm

 Purpose of cuff is to deform the brachial artery
 Listen to Korotokoff sounds
 At Rest: pump pressure up to ~200

– Slowly release pressure at about 4mmHg/sec
– After you hear the last Korotokoff sound completely release
pressure.
– Blood pressure is recorded in even numbers, round up to even
numbers
Chapter 3
Lab
 Systolic- is the first thump you hear (1st Korotokoff Sound)
 Diastolic- is the last thump you hear (4th Korotokoff Sound)
– You can use 5th Korotokoff Sound which is the absence of sound
 Sources of error
– Acuity of hearing, background noise, level of experience,
improper cuff size, improper placement of stethoscope or ear
pieces, inaccurate sphygmomanometer, improper rate of
release, slow reaction time, etc.

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Chapter 3

Presentation prepared by:

A Muscle Cell and Its Major

Molecular Biology and Exercise Science

Cellular Chemical Reactions

The Breakdown of Glucose:

The energy given off by the exergonic reaction

Take home messages (1)

Take home messages (2)

Roles of NAD and FAD in electron

Structural Formulas for NAD+, NADH,

(a) When NAD reacts

(b) When FAD reacts

Enzymes Catalyze Reactions

Enzymes lower the energy of activation

Factors That Alter Enzyme Activity

The Effect of Body Temperature on

The Effect of pH on Enzyme Activity

Two substrates Enzyme catalyzes Product molecule

Diagnostic Value of Measuring

 Damaged cells release enzymes into the blood

Examples of the Diagnostic Value of

Take home messages

Fuels for exercise-Carbohydrates

Fuels for exercise-Fats

Fuels for exercise-Protein

Take home messages

ATP is the Universal Energy Donor

Anaerobic ATP Production

 ATP-PC system or “phosphagen system”

PC + ADP Creatine kinase

Does Creatine Supplementation

The Two Phases of Glycolysis

Interaction Between Blood Glucose

Glycolysis: Energy Investment Phase

Glycolysis: Energy Generation Phase

Hydrogen and Electron Carrier

 Flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD)

NADH is “Shuttled” into Mitochondria

 NADH produced in glycolysis must be converted

Conversion of Pyruvic Acid to

The addition of two H to pyruvic acid forms NAD

Catalyzed by lactate dehydrogenase (LDH)

Lactic Acid or Lactate?

The ionization of lactic acid forms the

Take homes messages

ATP ADP + Pi + Energy

Aerobic ATP Production

The Citric acid (aka, Krebs Cycle)

Fats and Proteins in Aerobic Metabolism

Relationship Between the Metabolism

Aerobic ATP Production

The Chemiosmotic Hypothesis of ATP

Electron Transport Chain

Beta Oxidation is the Process of

Take homes messages

Free Radicals are Formed in the Mitochondria

A New Look at the ATP Balance Sheet

Aerobic ATP Tally Per Glucose

32 moles ATP/mole glucose x 7.3 kcal/mole ATP

Take home messages

Example of a Rate-Limiting Enzyme

Rate-Limiting Enzymes of Metabolic

Take home messages