Usama Alameedy, Ph.D.

Petroleum Engineering Dept.

University of Baghdad
2nd Class
Fluid
Mechanic

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 • Definition of a fluid
• Density
MATERIAL SCOPE • Viscosity
• Surface tension
• Compressibility

Fluid
statics
• Hydrostatic pressure distribution
• Pressure measuring devices
• Hydrostatic force acting on Fluid dynamic
submerged plane and curved
surfaces

• Continuity equation
• Bernoulli’s equation
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• Momentum equation
 Applications
Velocity measurement with a Pitot tube

Jet issuing from an orifice

Flow-rate measurement with a Venturi-meter

Impact force by a jet on a flat plate

Impact force on a pipe bend

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 What is a Fluid?
Fluid is a substance that does not have a fixed shape; it deforms
continuously if, e.g. a force parallel to the plane on which it acts is applied
Such a force is termed a shear force F [N]
The ratio of the shear force to the area on which the shear force acts is
known as shear stress

No force applied Force is applied

Note: Both symbols U and V can be used for velocity

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 What is a Fluid (cont.)
If a fluid is at rest there are NO shear forces and shear stresses
In a fluid the shear forces are possible only while relative movement between
fluid layers is taking place
No force applied After a shear force is applied

Large deformation

Small deformation

Continuous deformation
Features of a fluid

 Not solid. It does not have a particular shape

 Any fluid flows, does not matter how thick or viscous the fluid is
 No shear force or shear stress can exist if fluid is at rest
 It 09/26/2023
can spread over the ground due to gravity 5
 What is a Fluid (cont.)
Types of fluids
• Substance modes: solid, liquid or gas
• Fluids: liquids and gases
• Behaviors of liquids and gases are similar
Liquids
• Certain amount of liquid has a defined volume
• Can have a free surface
• Often incompressible
Gases

• Always expand to fill the container

• Often compressible
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 Fluid properties

Density Ratio of mass to volume

Incompressible fluids ρ= constant

Specific weight (γ) : is the force exerted by the earth's
gravity upon a unit volume of the substance [γ= ρg]

Relative density (specific gravity) : is the ratio of mass

density of the substance to that of water at a standard
temperature and pressure = ρ/ρw (non-dimensional).
Density of water: 1,000 kg/ Density of air: ~ 1 kg/
Density of water at 1 atm
Does density vary with temperature?
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 Fluid properties-Viscosity

 All fluids offer resistance to any force tending to cause one layer to move over another

 Viscosity of the fluid property is responsible for this resistance

 Viscosity is a measure of fluid’s reluctance to shear, or resistance to the movement

of one fluid layer over an adjoining layer
Velocity arrows’ length indicates how fast different fluid layers move

More viscous or thick fluid (e.g., glycerin) Less viscous or thin fluid (e.g., water)
Both symbols U and V can be used for velocity
Note:09/26/2023 8
 Fluid properties-Viscosity

Shear rate(rate of shear) –velocity gradient or the rate at

which velocity changes with the distance across the flow:

Change of velocity over distance L

Change of velocity over distance Δy

Change of velocity at a point

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 Fluid properties-Viscosity

Shear force–force tangential/parallel to the plane on which it acts

Shear stress–shear force per unit area

Normal force(pressure force) -force normal/perpendicular to the surface on which it acts

Pressure–normal force divided by area

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 Fluid properties-Viscosity (cont.)
Newton’s law of viscosity

For the straight and parallel motion of a given fluid, the shear stress between two
adjoining layers in a fluid is proportional to the velocity gradient(rate of deformation or
rate of shear) in the direction perpendicular to the layers

If the force F acts over an area of contact A, the shear stress is given by F/A

where μ is a constant
Or in a general form (Newton’s law of viscosity):

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 Fluid properties-Viscosity (cont.)
Newton’s law of viscosity
Velocity gradient and stress at a point

Change of velocity Δu occurring over a larger distance Δy is only

true for a linear velocity profile
Where μ is the coefficient of viscosity or dynamic (or absolute)viscosity
To solve problems we will assume linear velocity profiles and will apply Eq. (2) when
larger distances are considered

When the force on the plate is Non-uniform or non-linear

doubled, the speed at which it velocity distribution-Flow in a
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moves will be doubled 12
pipe
 Fluid properties-Viscosity (cont.)
Dynamic (absolute) viscosity (μ)
μ is defined using
 Newtonian fluids: Viscosity μ=constant, it is independent of
the rate of shear du/dy. It may change with temperature

 Non-Newtonian fluids: viscosity μ≠constant, it varies with the

rate of shear du/dy

Kinematic viscosity (ν)

v= μ/ρ

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 Newtonian and Non-Newtonian fluids
Stress versus rate of shear is a straight line, i.e.
Newtonian fluids
μ=constant, Examples. Water, kerosene, air
Fluids which do not follow the linear
Non-Newtonian fluids
relationship between shear stress and
rate of deformation

Such fluids are relatively uncommon.

Examples. Solutions or suspensions (slurries), mud flows, polymer
solutions, blood etc. These fluids are generally complex mixtures and
are studied under rheology, a science of deformation and flow.

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 Example
The gaps between the plates are filled with water. Calculate the force required to enable the middle plate
to travel at 40 cm/s. Assume the velocity of the fluid varies linearly in between the plates.
ANALYSIS

 The force is the same on the two sides -concentrate on one side.

 Use the Newton’s law to calculate the shear stress

 Calculate the force on one side of the plate:

 Force on the plate (two sides):

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 Example (cont.)
SOLUTION  Repeat Newton’s law:

 For a linear velocity distribution:

 Shear stress on plane

Linear distribution of fluid velocity in the gaps

 Total force:

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 Examples : Blood, milk, liquid cement and clay.
 If n = 1 and B = τ0 .... Bingham fluid or ideal plastic.

An ideal plastic fluid has a definite yield stress and a constant-

linear relation between shear
stress developed and rate of deformation:
i.e. τ = 0
du
dy
τ+

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 Effect of Temperature on Viscosity

• Viscosity is effected by temperature.

• The viscosity of liquids decreases with increase in temperature
• The viscosity of gases increases with increase in temperature.
• Liquids : the intermolecular cohesion and the shear stress which decreases with the
increase in temperature.
• Gases: the intermolecular cohesion is negligible and the shear stress is due to exchange of
momentum of the molecules, normal to the direction of motion. The molecular activity
increases with rise in temperature and so does the viscosity of gas.

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 Effect of Pressure on Viscosity

The viscosity under ordinary conditions is not appreciably affected by the changes in
pressure. However, the viscosity of some oils has been found to increase with increase in
pressure.

ANALYSIS

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SOLUTION

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 HW

3
 HW
4

6
 SURFACE TENSION AND CAPILLARITY
• Cohesion. intermolecular attraction between molecules of the same liquid. It enables a liquid to
resist small amount of tensile stresses.
• Adhesion. Adhesion means attraction between the molecules of a liquid and the molecules of
a solid boundary surface in contact with the liquid.

Capillary action is due to both cohesion and

adhesion.
Surface tension is caused by the force of cohesion at
the free surface.
examples of phenomenon of surface tension

Rain drops (A falling rain drop

becomes spherical due to cohesion
and surface tension).

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 SURFACE TENSION AND CAPILLARITY
Pressure Inside a Water Droplet and Soap Bubble

Case I. Water droplet:

Let, p = Pressure inside the droplet above outside
pressure (i.e., Δp = p – 0 = p above atmospheric
pressure)
d = Diameter of the droplet and
σ = Surface tension of the liquid.
From free body diagram (Fig.), we have:

Under equilibrium conditions these two forces will be equal and opposite,
 SURFACE TENSION AND CAPILLARITY
Pressure Inside a Water Droplet and Soap Bubble

Case II. Soap (or hollow) bubble:

Soap bubbles have two surfaces on which surface tension σ
acts. From the free body diagram (Fig.), we have

Since the soap solution has a high value of surface tension σ, even with small pressure of
blowing a soap bubble will tend to grow larger in diameter (hence formation of large soap
bubbles).
 SURFACE TENSION AND CAPILLARITY
Pressure Inside a Water Droplet and Soap Bubble

Case II. Soap (or hollow) bubble:

Soap bubbles have two surfaces on which surface tension σ
acts. From the free body diagram (Fig.), we have

Since the soap solution has a high value of surface tension σ, even with small pressure of
blowing a soap bubble will tend to grow larger in diameter (hence formation of large soap
bubbles).
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 HW

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In a soap bubble there are two interfaces. Hence

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 SURFACE TENSION AND CAPILLARITY
is a phenomenon by which a liquid (depending upon its specific gravity) rises
Capillarity into a thin glass tube above or below its general level. This phenomenon is due
to the combined effect of cohesion and adhesion of liquid particles.
Fig. shows the phenomenon of rising water in the tube of smaller diameters.
Let, d = Diameter of the capillary tube,
θ = Angle of contact of the water surface,
σ = Surface tension force for unit length,
w = Weight density (ρg).
upward surface tension force (lifting force) = weight of
the water column in the tube (gravity force)

For water and glass: θ = 0. Hence the capillary rise of water in the
glass
 SURFACE TENSION AND CAPILLARITY
Capillarity

In case of mercury there is a capillary depression as shown

in Fig. , and the angle of depression is θ = 140°. (It may be
noted that here cos θ = cos 140° = cos (180 – 40°) = – cos
40°, therefore, h is negative indicating capillary
depression).

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 SURFACE TENSION AND CAPILLARITY
Capillarity
Following points are worth noting:
(i) Smaller the diameter of the capillary tube, greater is the
capillary rise or depression.
(ii) The measurement of liquid level in laboratory capillary
(glass) tubes should not be smaller than 8 mm.
(iii) Capillary effects are negligible for tubes longer than 12
mm.
(iv) For wetting liquid (water): θ < π/2. For water:
θ = 0 when pure water is in contact with clean glass.
But θ becomes as high as 25° when water is slightly
contaminated.

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 SURFACE TENSION AND CAPILLARITY
Capillarity
For non-wetting liquid (mercury): θ > π/2. (For mercury:
θ varies between 130° to 150°) Refer Fig. which
illustrates the liquid gas interface with a solid surface.
(v) The effects of surface tension are negligible in many
flow problems except those involving.
— capillary rise;
— formation of drops and bubbles;
— the break up of liquid jets, and
— hydraulic model studies where the model or flow
depth is small.

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Example : A clean tube of diameter 2.5 mm is immersed in a liquid with a coefficient of
surface tension = 0.4 N/m. The angle of contact of the liquid with the glass can be assumed
to be 135°. The density of the liquid = 13600 kg/m3. What would be the level of the liquid
in the tube relative to the free surface of the liquid inside the tube.
Solution. Given: d = 2.5 mm ; σ = 4 N/m, θ = 135°; ρ = 13600 kg/m3
Level of the liquid in the tube, h:
The liquid in the tube rises (or falls) due to capillarity. The capillary rise (or fall),

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 HW
10

11

12

13

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 HW

14

15

16

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 COMPRESSIBILITY AND BULK MODULUS

• The property by virtue of which fluids undergo a change in volume under the action of
external pressure is known as compressibility. It decreases with the increases in pressure
of fluid as the volume modulus increases with the increase of pressure.
• The variation in volume of water, with variation of pressure, is so small that for all practical
purposes it is neglected.
• The compressibility in Fluid Mechanics is considered mainly when the velocity of flow is
high enough reaching 20 percent of speed of sound in the medium.

• The water is considered to be an incompressible liquid. However in

case of water flowing through pipes when sudden or large changes in
pressure (e.g. water hammer)

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 COMPRESSIBILITY AND BULK MODULUS
• Elasticity of fluids is measured in terms of bulk modulus of elasticity (K) which is defined as
the ratio of compressive stress to volumetric strain.
• Compressibility is the reciprocal of bulk modulus of elasticity.
Let, V = Volume of gas enclosed in the cylinder,
and p = Pressure of gas when volume is V= P/A
where A is the area of cross-section of the
cylinder.
Let the pressure is increased to p + dp, the
volume of gas decreases from V to V – dV.
Then increase in pressure = dp; Decrease in
volume = dV
∴ Volumetric strain = – dV/V
∴ Bulk modulu
(Negative sign indicates decrease in volume
with increase of pressure)
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 COMPRESSIBILITY AND BULK MODULUS
The following points are worth noting:

1. The bulk modulus of elasticity (K) of a fluid is not constant, but it increases
with increase in pressure. This is so because when a fluid mass is compressed its
molecules become close together and its resistance to further compression
increases .
2. The bulk modulus of elasticity (K) of the fluid is affected by the temperature of
the fluid. In the case of liquids there is a decrease of K with increase of
temperature. However, for gases since pressure and temperature are inter-
related and as temperature increases, pressure also increases, an increase in
temperature results in an increase in the value of K.
3. At NTP (normal temperature and pressure):

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 6.5

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 HW

17

18

19

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 VAPOUR PRESSURE
All liquids have a tendency to evaporate or vaporize. Molecules are continuously
projected from the free surface to the atmosphere. These ejected molecules are in a
gaseous state and exert their own partial vapour pressure on the liquid surface. This
pressure is known as the vapour pressure of the liquid (pv). If the surface above the
liquid is confined, the partial vapour pressure exerted by the molecules increases till
the rate at which the molecules re-enter the liquid is equal to the rate at which they
leave the surface. When the equilibrium condition is reached, the vapour pressure is
called saturation vapour pressure (pvs).
The following points are worth noting:
1. If the pressure on the liquid surface is lower than or
equal to the saturation vapour pressure, boiling takes
place.
2. Vapour pressure increases with the rise in temperature.
3. Mercury has a very low vapour pressure and hence, it is
an excellent fluid to be used in a barometer
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 Dimension, Dimensional homogeneity and units:

Dimensional analysis is a mathematical technique which makes use of the

study of the dimensions for solving several engineering problems.
• Each physical phenomenon can be expressed by an equation giving
relationship between different quantities, such quantities are dimensional
and non-dimensional.
• Dimensional analysis helps in determining a systematic arrangement of the
variables in the physical relationship, combining dimensional variables to
form non-dimensional parameters.
• Dimensional analysis has become an important tool for analyzing fluid flow
problems. It is specially useful in presenting experimental results in a
concise form.
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 Dimension, Dimensional homogeneity and units:

Uses of dimensional analysis: The uses of dimensional analysis may be

summarized as follows:
1. To test the dimensional homogeneity of any equation of fluid motion.
2. To derive rational formulae for a flow phenomenon.
3. To derive equations expressed in terms of nondimensional parameters to
show the relative significance of each parameter.
4. To plan model tests and present experimental results in a systematic manner,
thus making it possible to analyze the complex fluid flow phenomenon.

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 Dimension, Dimensional homogeneity and units:

Advantages of dimensional analysis: Dimensional analysis entails the following

advantages:
1. It expresses the functional relationship between the variables in dimensionless
terms.
2. In hydraulic model studies it reduces the number of variables involved in a physical
phenomenon, generally by three.
3. By the proper selection of variables, the dimensionless parameters can be used to
make certain logical deductions about the problem.
4. Design curves, by the use of dimensional analysis, can be developed from
experimental data or direct solution of the problem.
5. It enables getting up a theoretical equation in a simplified dimensional form.
6. Dimensional analysis provides partial solutions to the problems that are too
complex to be dealt with mathematically.
7. The conversion of units of quantities from one system to another is facilitated.
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 DIMENSIONS

The various physical quantities used in fluid phenomenon can be expressed in terms of
fundamental quantities or primary quantities.
• The fundamental quantities are mass, length, time and temperature, designated by the
letters, M, L, T, θ respectively. Temperature is specially useful in compressible flow.
• The quantities which are expressed in terms of the fundamental or primary quantities are
called derived or secondary quantities, (e.g., velocity, area, acceleration etc.).
• The expression for a derived quantity in terms of the primary quantities is called the
dimension of the physical quantity.
• A quantity may either be expressed dimensionally in M-L-T or F-L-T system (some
engineers prefer to use force instead of mass as fundamental quantity because the force
is easy to measure).

Table gives the dimensions of various quantities used in both the systems.

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 DIMENSIONAL HOMOGENEITY
• Any correct equation expressing a physical relationship between quantities must be dimensionally
homogeneous and numerically equivalent.
• Dimensional homogeneity states that every term in an equation when reduced to fundamental dimensions
must contain identical powers of each dimension.
p = wh

∴ Equation p = wh is dimensionally homogeneous; so it can be used in any system of units.

Applications of Dimensional Homogeneity:
1. It facilitates to determine the dimensions of a physical quantity.
2. It helps to check whether an equation of any physical phenomenon is dimensionally homogeneous or not.
3. It facilitates conversion of units from one system to another.
4. It provides a step towards dimensional analysis which is fruitfully employed to plan experiments and to present the results
meaningfully.

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Solution. Since the expression is dimensionally homogeneous, the term should be dimensionless

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 METHODS OF DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS
With the help of dimensional analysis the equation of a physical phenomenon can be
developed in terms of dimensionless groups or parameters and thus reducing the number of
variables.

The methods of dimensional analysis are based on the Fourier’s principle of homogeneity.
The methods of dimensional analysis are:
1. Rayleigh’s method
2. Buckingham’s π-method
3. Bridgman’s method
4. Matrix-tensor method
5. By visual inspection of the variables involved
6. Rearrangement of differential equations.

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 Rayleigh’s method
Determining the expression for a variable which depends upon maximum three or four variables only.
In case the number of independent variables becomes more than four, then it is very difficult to find the
expression for the dependent variable.

The functional relationship of some variables is expressed in the form of an exponential equation which
must be dimensionally homogeneous. Thus if X is a variable which depends on X1, X2, X3, ...Xn; the
functional equation can be written as: X = f (X1, X2, X3, ..... Xn) ..
In the above equation X is a dependent variable, while X1, X2, X3, ....Xn are independent variables. A
dependent variable is the one about which information is required while independent variables are those
which govern the variation of dependent variable.

where, C is a constant and a, b, c,... are the arbitrary powers. The values of a, b, c,... n are obtained by
comparing the powers of the fundamental dimensions on both sides. Thus the expression is obtained
for dependent variable.

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 HW
20

21

22

23

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