Functional

organization of
the nervous
system
Dr. T Jay-du Preez
 Functional Organization
• Nervous system anatomical division:
• CNS and PNS
• Nervous system functional division:
• Somatic and autonomic system
 Functional Organization
• Somatic nervous system:
• Controls voluntary action
• Sensory perception
• Higher functions of nervous system.
 Functional Organization
• Autonomic nervous system:
• Regulates organ activity e.g.. heart,
secretory glands and involuntary muscles
of viscera e.g.. blood vessels, digestive
tract etc.
• No voluntary control: we are unaware of
functions: vegetative functions.
• Both systems have peripheral and central
parts.
 Functional Organization
• Central Nervous System
• Consists of brain and
spinal cord
• Protected by skull and
vertebral column
• Brain includes
Cerebrum, cerebellum
and brain stem
• Brain stem connects
cerebrum and
cerebellum with spinal
cord.
 Functional Organization
• Cerebrum:
• Left and right hemispheres
• Corpus callosum=thick band nerve
fibers connecting hemispheres across
midline.
• Cerebral cortex: outer gray layer
each hemisphere=mainly cell bodies
Functional organization
Functional Organization
 Functional Organization
• Inner white matter=nerve fibers
• Fibers connect:
• 1)Different parts same
hemisphere=association fibers
• 2)Hemispheres in two directions with
lower regions (efferent + afferent
fibers)=projection fibers
• 3)Hemispheres with each
other=commissural fibers=corpus
callosum.
 Functional Organization
• Sulci divide surface hemispheres into
5 lobes: frontal, parietal, occipital,
temporal and limbic lobes.
• Smaller grooves subdivide these into
convolutions.
• 6th lobe=insula
 Functional Organization
• Functions:
• Frontal lobes: Mainly motor functions
• Prefrontal areas associated with
personality and association.
• Parietal lobes: General sensations and
associative functions.
• Temporal and occipital lobes: Receptive
areas: hearing and vision
• Also temporal association areas
Functional Organization
 Functional Organization
• Neocortex: Consist of Frontal,
parietal, occipital and temporal
lobes=phylogenetically the more
recent additions to the neocortex.
• Limbic lobe=on medial and inferior
surface each
hemisphere=phylogenetically older
part cortex=paleocortex
 Functional Organization
• Limbic lobes=involved behavior and
emotion
• Base each hemisphere= thalamus and
basal nuclei=grey matter.
• Thalamus has connections to lower parts
and cortex esp. sensory areas.
• Integrates sensory impulses from eyes,
ears, skin, muscles and joints and sends it
to cortex
• Basal nuclei and part of thalamus is NB in
motor system
 Functional Organization
• Cerebellum:
• Posterior to pons and medulla oblongata
• Two hemispheres=neocerebellum
• Vermis connects these.
• Vermis and anterior lobe of each
hemisphere=paleocerebellum
• Posterior, inferior part=archicerebellum
• Each hemisphere connected to brain stem
via three bundles nerve fibers.
• Cerebellum is involved in muscle control
Functional Organization
 Functional Organization
• Brain stem:
• Midbrain connected to cerebral
hemispheres
• Pons
• Medulla Oblongata continuous with
spinal cord
 Functional Organization
• Brain stem grey matter: formed by
nuclei distributed in outer white
matter.
• Afferent and efferent fibers
connecting cerebrum to spinal cord.
• Some connect brain stem and
cerebellum.
 Functional Organization
• Nuclei include sensory and motor nuclei of
cranial nerves
• Also nuclei of hypothalamus.
• Also contains reticular formation RF.
• RF=multisynaptic network of nerve cells
with a number of nerve cells e.g.. motor
nuclei involved in breathing, heart rate,
circulation, swallowing and vomiting=vital
centers.
 Functional Organization
• It also houses the cortical arousal
system the RAS or reticular
activating system.
 Functional Organization
• Spinal cord
• From medulla down vertebral canal.
• Particular segment corresponds to
particular vertebra.
• 40-45cm long in adult.
• Stretches to L2 in an adult
• Full length of canal at birth.
Functional Organization
Functional Organization
 Functional Organization
• Segmental arrangement of spinal cord and
segmental nerve supply of body parts are
retained in an adult.
• Grey matter=central
• Central canal throughout whole length.
• Anterior part “butterfly”=ant horn
• Posterior part=post horn
• Intermediate part=pars intermedia
 Functional Organization
• Grey matter functionally organized in cell
groups
• Anterior horn nucleus, intermediolateral
nucleus, posterior horn nucleus, posterior
nucleus and substantia gelatinosa.
• Rest of grey matter=interneurons.
• Each butterfly wing of grey matter
histologically divided into 10 laminae.
 Functional Organization
• Surrounding white matter divided
into dorsal, lateral and anterior
columns (or anterolateral column)It
contains ascending afferent sensory
fibers and descending efferent motor
fibers.
Functional Organization
 Functional Organization
• The Peripheral nervous system:
• Consists of ganglia and nerve fibers:
• Include 31 pairs spinal nerves
• 12 pairs cranial nerves
• Spinal nerves connect spinal cord and
sensory endings/effectors
• Cranial nerves connect brain stem with
sensory and motor structures of the head.
Functional Organization
 Functional Organization
• Spinal Nerves:
• One pair, one L one R emerge from
cord between each of the vertebrae
• Comes through intervertebral
foraminae
• C1 emerge between skull and 1st
Vertebrae
• Thus 8 pairs cervical spinal nerves
C1-C8 and 7 cervical vertebrae.
 Functional Organization
• 12 Thoracic T1-T12
• 5 Lumbar L1-L5
• 5 Sacral S1-S5
• 1 Coccygeal nerve
• 31 nerves on each side.
 Functional Organization
• Each spinal nerve: Afferent and efferent
fibers that originate form anterior and
posterior root from the spinal cord.
• Anterior root: Efferent fibers
• Axons of:1)Supplying voluntary muscles of
body with motor cells in anterior
horn.2)Autonomic nerves: motor cells
located in intermediolateral nucleus
supplying glands and involuntary muscles.
Functional Organization
 Functional Organization
• Posterior root: Afferent fibers enter
cord through post root
• These fibers are axons of unipolar
sensory cells in spinal ganglia
• These are situated outside the CNS
on post roots before they enter
spinal cord.
 Functional Organization
• Anterior roots thus purely
efferent/motor
• Posterior roots purely
afferent/sensory.
• This arrangement =Bell-Magendie
law.
 Functional Organization
• Although fibers
emerge through
separate roots
• they join and
continue as mixed
nerve to organ
innervated by it.
 Functional Organization
• Cranial Nerves:
• 12 Pairs originating from brain stem
• No post and ant roots
• Some purely sensory, some purely motor
• Motor: III,IV,VI XI and XII
• Sensory: I, II and VIII
• Autonomic fibers as well: III, VII, IX and X
 Functional Organization
• Afferent fibers to brain for vision,
hearing, olfaction, taste and
equilibrium and general senses e.g..
cold, heat, touch and pain.
• Cell bodies are in ganglia on cranial
nerves just before they enter the
brain stem.
• Enter brain stem and synapse with
sensory nuclei.
 Functional Organization
• Axons then ascend to areas in
cortex=perception.
• Afferent autonomic fibers proceed to
autonomic centers in brain stem.
Functional Organization
 Functional Organization
• I Olfactory Sensory Smell
• II Optic Sensory Vision
• III Oculomotor Motor Eye movement
• Autonomic Pupil and
• Cilliary muscles eye
• IV Trochlear Motor Eye movement
• V Trigeminal Sensory
• General sensations head
• Motor Muscles of jaw
 Functional Organization
• VI Abducence Motor Eye movement
• VII Facial Motor Facial expression
• Sensory Taste (ant 2/3
• tongue)
• Autonomic Salivary/tear
• glands.
• VIII Vestibulocochlear Sensory
• Hearing and equilibrium
 Functional Organization
• IX Glossopharyngeal Motor Throat
• muscles – palate/pharynx
• Sensory Taste
• (posterior 1/3 of tongue)
• X Vagus Motor Throat muscles (soft
• palate, pharynx,
• intrinsic laryngeal muscles)
• Autonomic: visceral reflexes.
 Functional Organization
• XI Accessory Motor Muscles neck and
• shoulders
• XII Hypoglossal Motor Muscles
• tongue.
 Functional Organization
• CSF, meninges and ventricles:
• CNS surrounded by three
membranes known as meninges.
• Meningitis=inflammation thereof
• From within pia mater, arachnoid
mater, dura mater.
• Pia mater=vascular covering all
convolutions of surface brain and
cord.
 Functional Organization
• Space btw pia and spidery arachnoid is
subarachnoid space filled with CSF.
• Dura is thick and fibrous double
membrane. Outer layer lines skull, inner
layer separates in certain parts from the
outer layer to form venous sinuses
between the two layers-venous blood from
brain drain into these.
• Thus dura has periosteal and meningeal
layer.
 Functional Organization
• From sinuses large veins joining
vena cava superior return blood to
heart.
• Arachnoid granulations or villi bulge
into sinuses-valves returning CSF to
circulation.
• Absorption takes place proportionate
to CSF pressure=normally 120mm
H20.
 Functional Organization
• Ventricles: 4
• One each hemisphere=lateral ventricles
• One in midline between two thalami=3d
ventricle
• 4th ventricle on medial dorsal aspect of
pons and medulla
• From 4th ventricle continuous with central
canal spinal cod.
• Ventricles connected to subarachnoid
space through 3 openings roof 4th
ventricle. Thus filled with CSF.
 Functional Organization
• CSF formed by 1)Blood capillaries of
brain tissue (extracellular fluid of
tissue)
• Capillaries of pia mater
• Complex network blood capillaries in
choroid plexuses in brain ventricles
 Functional Organization
• Stable special internal environment
necessary for brain cells in provided by
special qualities of blood capillaries.
• Transport and diffusion mechanisms
allowing selective passage of certain
molecules and excluding others.
• Protects brain cells
• These mechanisms is the blood brain
barrier.
 Functional Organization
• Composition of brain ECF and CSF
differs from blood plasma and these
fluids are formed by filtration,
diffusion, osmosis and active
transport.
 Functional Organization
• Exchange of substances through
capillary walls restricted by
• 1)Tight junctions btw endothelial
cells formed by astrocyte extensions
along capillaries.
• 2)Electrical charge of basal lamina of
endothelial cells.
 Functional Organization
• Active transport systems located in
walls endothelial cells
• Glucose transporter, transporters for
organic acids, choline, nucleic acid
precursors, amino acids and a
Na+/K+/2Cl- transporter.
• Some drugs can thus not pass
through bbb.
 Functional Organization
• Barrier less effective in infections or
injuries.
• BBB not exist at median eminence
and chemoreceptor zone e.g. vomit
centre.
• With kernicterus in newborn free
bilirubin crosses bbb and damages
brain.
 Functional Organization
• CSF volume 140ml
• Daily production=600ml
• Brain no lymphatic system
• Excessive production or failure of
absorption leads to accumulation of
fluid in ventricles.
• Increased intracranial pressure as
skull encases brain.
 Functional Organization
• When intracranial pressure too high
impedes normal cerebral blood flow
and brain damage results.
• Hydrocephalus is such a condition.
• Adult: spinal cord ends at L2 but
subarachnoid space extends to sacral
region. This makes LP possible.
• Lumbar CSF 70-180mm H20
 Functional Organization
• Main functions CSF:
• 1) Protect brain tissue from mechanical
trauma-shock absorber
• 2) System for removal excessive fluid
from extracellular space of brain-serves as
lymphatic system
• 3)Provides optimal fluid environment for
brain functioning.
• 4)Distribution chemicals to brain centers
involved in adjusting vital functions e.g..
H+ in resp centre stimulates breathing.
 Functional Organization
• Reflex activity:
• Reflex arc=basic unit of integrated
neural activity, i.e. a complete neural
circuit extending from peripheral
receptor to a centre in CNS to
perform constantly recurring
stereotyped responses of the body to
environmental stimuli.
Functional Organization
 Functional Organization
• Axons of most neurons subdivide
into branches that form synapses
with several other
neurons=divergence
• Most neurons receive synapses from
many other neurons=convergence.
 Functional Organization
• Reflex arc consist of sensory nerve ending,
afferent neuron, centre in CNS, efferent
neuron and effector.
• Afferent nerve fibers enter via posterior
nerve roots or afferent cranial nerves
(structures in the head)
• Cell bodies are in posterior root ganglia in
the spine or homologous ganglia on cranial
nerves.
 Functional Organization
• Efferent fibers leave via ant roots or
cranial motor nerves.
• Reflex=response to stimulus
involving a reflex arc.
• Monosynaptic reflex arc=simplest.
• Some reflexes inborn e.g.. eye
reflexes, other result of learning e.g.
riding a bicycle.
Functional Organization
 Functional Organization
• The autonomic nervous system
• Regulates and modifies the contractile
activity all involuntary muscle tissues incl.
heart, smooth muscle in blood vessels etc.
and secretory acivity of all exocrine glands
e.g.. salivary glands and some endocrine
glands e.g.. adrenal medulla thus organs
involved in vegetative processes.
 Functional Organization
• Autonomic vs. Somatic reflex arc
• Simplest somatic reflex arc is monosynaptic
• Autonomic reflex arc at least three neurons
(disynaptic)
• Autonomic arc always contains a synaptic
junction btw axon of central neuron leaving CNS
and effector organ and this is present in
peripheral autonomic ganglion.
• Somatic nervous system the axon of the central
neuron which leaves the CNS is not interrupted
on the way to effector.
Functional Organization
 Functional Organization
• Afferent autonomic fibers=unmyelinated.
• Receptors in visceral organs (Stretch,
Baro, volume, chemo and osmoreceptors)
• Autonomic centers located in grey matter
of thoracic, upper two lumbar and 2nd to
4th sacral segments of spinal cord. Also in
nuclei in brain stem.
• Medulla oblongata and hypothalamus
controls centers.
 Functional Organization
• Medulla: Cardiomotor and resp centre
• Hypothalamus: temp regulation, thirst and
hunger centers.
• Hypothalamus formed below thalamus.
• Connections to pituitary gland.
• Neuroendocrine organ (autonomic nervous
system and hypophysis function)
• Controls all autonomic processes in body.
Functional Organization
Functional Organization
 Functional Organization
• Efferent autonomic nerve fibers
• Leave from all the thoracic plus first
two lumbar segments of spinal cord.
• Also from brain stem nuclei of cranial
nerves.
• Also from 2nd to 4th sacral spinal
segments.
 Functional Organization
• ANS divided into two divisions:
• Sympathetic division=thoracolumbar
outflow
• Parasympathetic division=Cranial
+sacral outflow.
• Preganglionic mainly myelinated
group B fibers
• Postganglionic mainly unmyelinated
group C fibers.
 Functional organization
• Sympathetic division
• Preganglionic efferent fibers enter
paravertebral ganglia=about 22 ganglia
each side vertebral column
• Fibers of digestive tract do not relay in
chain but synapse incollateral ganglia on
arteries supplying intestines.
• Postganglionic fibers supply most organs
• Adrenal medulla receives only
preganglionic fibers.
 Functional Organization
• Parasympathetic division
• Preganglionic fibers of III, VII, IX form
synapse in ganglia in head
• Some of nerve X/vagus also synapse in
some ganglia, but most of its fibers
terminate in terminal ganglia close to
structures supplied by it.
• Vagus supplies most organs in abdomen
and thorax.
• The efferent fibers of S2-4 supply pelvic
organs.
 Functional Organization
• Transmission at autonomic synapses:
• Ach released by both sympathetic and
parasympathetic preganglionic fibers.
• Ach re in ganglia mostly nicotinic re.
• Ach re in membranes of effector cells are
muscarinic.
• Ach released by all parasympathetic
postganglionic fiber terminals.
• NA is transmitter released by most
sympathetic postganglionic terminals.
(except sweat glands and erectile tissue)
 Functional Organization
• Autonomic nerve fibers therefore
classified as cholinergic and
adrenergic.
• Other transmitters is DA and NO.
• DA released by interneurons in
sympathetic division
• NO released by some postganglionic
fibers innervating certain blood
vessels
 Functional Organization
• Most organs supplied by both
adrenergic and cholinergic fibers.
• Two systems exert antagonistic
effects.
• Heart: sympathetic stimulation
increases heart rate,
parasympathetic stimulation slows it.
 Functional Organization
• Postsynaptic responses produced by
activation of specific receptors
mostly involve a second messenger.
Functional Organization
 Functional Organization
• Sympathetic division:
• Origin T1-L2
• Neurotransmitter=Noradrenaline mainly
• Receptors Alpha (alpha1 and alpha2)
• And Beta (Beta1 and Beta2)
• Functions: emergency mechanism: Increase BP,
HR, dilate pupils and bronchioles, constrict
peripheral blood vessels. Decrease digestive
system motility, contraction of sphincters
digestive tract and relax bladder wall to fill.
Sweat secretion.
 Functional Organization
• Parasympathetic division-normal bodily activities.
• Origin Cranial nerves, S2-4
• Neurotransmitter Ach
• Receptors= Inhibitory and excitatory muscarinic
receptors
• Functions: Decrease HR, Constrict pupils,
increase motility digestive tract, secretion
digestive juices, dilation sphincters of digestive
tract.
• Bronchioles constriction, bladder contraction to
urinate, erection bmo vasodilation.
 Functional Organization
• Ach Re: Nicotinic, M1 brain, M2 heart
(causes slowing), M3, M4 smooth muscle
(increase intestinal motility), glands.
• NA Re: Alpha1( arterioles constrict),
alpha2, Beta1( increase rate and force of
heart), Beta2 (Relaxation in bronchioles)
• Dopamine Re: D1, D2
• NO
 Functional Organization
• Somatic nervous system
• Man communicates with environment
bmo somatic NS.
• Sensory system: Sensory receptors
relays info about environment to
CNS.
• Afferent =All info entering CNS,
conscious and unconscious.
 Functional Organization
• Somatic sensations incl. all
sensations initiated in body but excl.
the visceral structures.
• Transduction=All the processes
involved in converting a stimulus into
an action potential.
 Functional Organization
• Initiation of afferent impulses:
Adequate stimulus is applied, a
receptor potential is generated which
initiates an action potential.
• Intensity discrimination: By variation
of frequency of impulses or by
variation of number of activated
receptors.
 Functional Organization
• Adaptation: When a stimulus is
applied for a prolonged period of
time, most sensations eventually
subside of become reduced-the
receptors are desensitized.
 Functional Organization
• Classification of receptors:
• Proprioreceptors: Info concerning
movement and position of body parts
in space: inner ear and muscles,
tendons.
• Exteroreceptors: Info on changes in
external environment: skin-touch,
light pressure, cold, heat, pain
 Functional Organization
• Interoreceptors: Impulses from
visceral organs-autonomic nervous
system.
• Telereceptors: Stimuli from remote
source: sight, hearing, olfaction.
• Chemoreceptors, mechanoreceptors,
nocireceptors (pain).
 Functional Organization
• Afferent pathways:
• Receptors-afferent nerves-posterior roots-
group together to form ascending tracts.
• Body and limbs: Low threshold, fast
conducting, A alpha fibers mediating fine
touch, light pressure and proprioception
ascend in posterior columns on the
ipsilateral side to medulla to form the
posterior column system=spinocortical
system/Goll and Burdach tracts.
 Functional Organization
• In medulla synapse with cells in Goll
and Burdach nuclei.
• Axons cross the midline and continue
on contra lateral side in brain stem
as the medial lemniscus to thalamus.
• In thalamus they synapse with cells
in specific sensory projection nuclei.
• From here to primary somatic
sensory areas SI and SII of cortex.
 Functional Organization
• Other fibers mediating touch, pressure
and proprioception and also fibers for
temp and pain synapse in posterior horn
of spinal cord.
• These cross the midline and ascend in
anterolateral system =spinothalamic
tracts.
• Fibers for pain and temperature ascend in
lateral spinothalamic tract.
• The rest in the anterior spinothalamic
tract.
 Functional Organization
• Both proceed through the brain stem as
spinal lemniscal system to specific sensory
projection nuclei in thalamus.
• From thalamus fibers project to cortical
somatic sensory areas.
• Anterolateral system contains different
types group A fibers and high threshold
slow unmyelinated group C fibers.
 Functional Organization
• Head and face:
• Sensory division of trigeminal nerve V.
• Enters pons
• Primary afferent fibers synapse with
superior sensory nucleus (touch, pressure
and proprioception)
• And spinal sensory nucleus (temperature
and pain.)
• Axons cross midline and proceed as
trigeminal lemniscus-to thalamus.
 Functional Organization
• Cortical representation:
• Primary sensory cortical areas:
• SI post central gyrus
• SII upper lip of lateral sulcus and
parietal operculum.
• Sensory Homunculus=sensory
cortical map.
 Functional Organization
• The thalamus:
• Two thalami at base cerebrum interlinked with
brainstem and each hemisphere.
• Nuclei: 1)Sensory projection nuclei: gateway for
sensory impulses.
• 2)Nonspecific projection nuclei: Receive fibers
from RAS and project diffusely to neocortex.
• 3)Nuclei for motor control: work with basal
ganglia
• 4)Nuclei for integrated functions e.g.. speech.
 Functional Organization
• Reticular activating centre:
• Reticular formation (RF) = central part
brain stem
• Centers concerned with respiration,
regulation HR and BP, swallowing,
vomiting, urination etc.
• RAS concerned with alerting cortex and
concerned with consciousness.
• RAS receives collaterals from all sensory
pathways and project to thalamus.
 Functional Organization
• Aspects of pain:
• Protective value.
• Pain receptors: All tissues of body except
neural tissue of brain. present in
meninges, venous sinuses and blood
vessels of brain)
• Thin myelinated A delta and unmyelinated
C fibers. (Fast pain and slow dull pain)
• To posterior horn in spinal cord.
 Functional Organization
• Afferent pathways: spinothalamic
tracts and trigeminal pathway
• Neurotransmitters: substance P at
level spinal cord, nociceptin in
hypothalamus.
• Transmitters suppressing
pain=serotonin, opioids e.g..
endorphins.
 Functional Organization
• Superficial pain: Skin=sharp, well
localized.
• Deep pain: Deep structures=dull, cause
autonomic response e.g.. sweating.
• Muscle pain: Insufficient blood supply/lack
O2 e.g.. heart attack.
• Visceral pain: dull, poorly localized.
• Viscera=insensitive but stretching of
hollow organs or traction on mesentery =
painful. May be referred.
 Functional Organization
• Headache: Venous sinuses and blood
vessels and dura at base of brain contain
nociceptors.
• Projected pain: incorrectly localized e.g..
slipped disc.
• Hyperalgesia and analgesia: when
threshold is lowered-hypersensitivity, or
loss of pain sensitivity.
• Abnormal/persistent pain: peripheral
nerve diseases and phantom limb pain.
• Itching: can be related to pain.