THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD

WHAT IS SCIENCE?
The goal of science is to understand natural phenomena

2 types of science:
 Discovery science
 Hypothesis-based science
DISCOVERY SCIENCE
Describes nature

Uses inductive reasoning

Observations used to infer conclusions (but no complete certainty

as to validity)

e.g. This red jellybean tastes like cherry. Thus, all red jellybeans taste
like cherry.

= ?
 HYPOTHESIS-BASED SCIENCE

Uses deductive reasoning

Previously-known premises used to form conclusions

(as long as premises are correct, conclusion will be
too)

e.g. Dogs are mammals.

All mammals have hair or fur.
Thus, all dogs have hair or fur.
 CRITICAL THINKING

Using data and facts to make

inferences, draw conclusions, solve
problems, etc.

Should be unbiased thought but rarely is

THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD

 Observation
 Hypothesis
 Predictions
 Test
 Analysis of results
 Conclusion
 FORMULATING A HYPOTHESIS

Proposes the answer to a question about an observation

e.g. Exposure to fertilizer increases reproduction of bean plants

Must be testable and rejectable

A hypothesis can be rejected but can never be proven true:
evidence can only support

Scientific knowledge is ever expanding as new methodologies are applied to

old questions, etc.
Examples of Good Hypotheses:
 Cactus spines reduce herbivory
 UVB radiation causes limb deformities in amphibians

Examples of Untestable Hypotheses:

 Women are more moral than men
 Dogs are smarter than cats
TESTING A HYPOTHESIS

Scientific experiment
(either falsifies or supports a hypothesis)

 Make predictions
 Determine variables
 Design an experimental procedure
 Carry out procedure
MAKING PREDICTIONS
Based on an experiment designed to test a hypothesis

If/then statements:
“If the hypothesis is true, then the results of the experiment will be …”
e.g. If exposure to fertilizer increases reproduction of bean plants, then the
number of pods per plant should increase in plants exposed to fertilizer
compared with control plants.
INDEPENDENT VARIABLE

The variable of interest

Is deliberately manipulated (changed)

Only one is usually chosen

(need to know which factor is affecting the
dependent variable)
DEPENDENT VARIABLE

Is measured or observed during an experiment

Value is caused by and depends on the value

of the independent variable
CONTROL VARIABLE

Is kept constant
(so that will not affect outcome of experiment)
There can be many control variables in any
experiment
 e.g. Exposure to fertilizer increases
reproduction of bean plants

Independent: fertilizer

Dependent: number of bean pods

Control: Other things that would affect bean reproduction e.g.

amount of water, temperature, amount of light, etc.
 EXAMPLES
The relationship between drug dosage & frequency / intensity of symptoms
Independent: amount of drug administered (dosage)
Dependent: Frequency / intensity of symptoms

The relationship between plant growth rate & duration of light exposure
Independent: Amount of time of exposure to light
Dependent: Plant growth rate
REPLICATION

Procedure is repeated several times to see if

results are consistent

Gives an idea of how much variation is present

Results from different trials are averaged

SAMPLE SIZE

Larger sample size = greater confidence

Sampling Error
Mean & standard deviations of sample differ
from that of population from which taken

Larger sample size = lower sampling error

PRESENTING & ANALYZING
RESULTS
9
8

Analysis: 7
6

Simple to advanced statistics

5
4
3
2
1
0
1 2 3 4 5

Presentation:
12

Tables and/or figures 10

 Show relationships between

Distance
6

independent and dependent 4

2
variables 0
0 1 2 3 4

 Bar graphs vs. line graphs Time

 DRAWING CONCLUSIONS

If results match prediction, hypothesis is supported

If not, the hypothesis is rejected

Knowledge of process has been increased either way, regardless of findings

 FROM HYPOTHESIS TO THEORY
How does something become a scientific theory?

When multiple rigorous tests have not disproved a certain hypothesis

(i.e. an idea with “great explanatory power”)

A theory can be used to interpret other data and observations

EXAMPLE OF SCIENTIFIC METHOD
LIMITS OF SCIENCE
Only testable hypotheses are valid

Some things are “unexplainable” or “untestable”

Supernatural, morality, etc.