The lecture

Water as factor of health, its hygienic,

endemic and epidemiologic value.
Organization of drinkable water-
supply. Methods of improvement of
quality of drinking-water. Ecological
problems and sanitary protection of
objects of waters.

Author: Lototska O.V.

Water constitutes nearly two-thirds of the total weight
of the body, 79 % of blood, 80 % of brain and muscles
and 10 % even of bones

Its main functions are that it:

 Replaces loss of fluids from
tissues.
 Maintains the fluidity of blood and
lymph.
 Helps elimination of waste material
of the body.
 Acts as a vehicle for dissolved
food.
 Helps in the secretion of digestive
juices.
 Regulates body temperature and
acts as a distributor of body heat.
 Uses of water

Domestic Use: 7 % of water available is for domestic

use i.e drinking, cooking, washing, bathing etc.
Recommended need of water is 30 gallon/ day/ person.
It includes all aspects of life which a person has in his
routine life i.e bathing, washing, drinking & for toilet
use.

Public purpose: Water is required for public cleansing,

maintenance of gardens, and swimming pools and other
civic activities.

Industrial Use: 23 % of available water is used in

industries.

Agricultural Use: 70 % of available water is used for

growth of food and raw materials required.
 The population should be provided not
only with enough of water, but also
with qualitative water. Water should
not cause any pathological change in
the organism, should not cause of
spread of infectious diseases, and also
not to cause unpleasant sensations.

Waters, used for drink and everyday needs,

must correspond to the demands:
good organoleptic properties: refreshing temperature,
transparence, colorless, no smell and no taste .
harmlessness of its chemical composition
the absence of pathogenic microorganisms
safety in the radiological attitude
Sources of water
 RAIN
Prime source of all water.
Part of rain water sinks to form ground water,
part of it evaporates and some runs in streams and
rivers. These events are called "water - cycle".
Characteristics:
Purest, bright & sparkling colour, soft water, only
traces of dissolved solids, corrosive action on lead
due to softness, in clean areas rain water is free of
pathogens.
Impurities:
Picks up local impurities such as dust, soot, micro-
organisms, CO2, N2, O2, Ammonia & Sulphur. In areas
where NO2 and SO2 are present in atmosphere, rain
water becomes acidic and the rain is called acidic
rain.
 SURFACE WATER
Surface water mostly originates from rain water.
It has highest chance of being polluted particularly river water
because people near banks throw wastes in it.
Sources of surface water are.
a. Impounding reservoirs
b. Rivers and streams
c. Tanks, ponds and lakes.

Catchments Area;
It is an area from where rain water is drained into a specific
reservoir area made naturally/ artificially.

Peat:
Decomposed organic matter containing acids is called peat. It
makes water acidic, so gain ability to dissolve lead and result is
lead poisoning.
 GROUND WATER
It is in form of:
a. Wells — Deep well, shallow well, Artesian well.
b. Springs — Seasonal springs, thermal springs, mineral
spring, shallow springs, and deep springs.

The advantages of ground water are:

a. It is usually free from pathogenic agents.
b. It usually requires no treatment.
c. Its supply is continuous.
The disadvantages of ground water are:
a. It is high in mineral contents
b. It requires pumping or some arrangement to lift the
water.
Springs: A spring is ground water which finds its way to
the surface because of topographical features. Cracks
present in earth, water enters and comes out from
other opening at a low level. So source may be quite
far away such as 100-200 miles.
WELLS

These are artificial holes or pits dug into the earth to

reach the underground water level. They constitute a very
important source of water supply in villages. There are
four varieties of wells:

1. Shallow Wells,
2. Deep Wells
3. Artesian Wells are a variety of deep wells in which
water under great pressure comes out to the surface
automatically
4. Norton's Abyssinian Tube Wells are really shallow wells
which are bored by simply driving iron pipes 3.8 to 5 cm.
in diameter and 6 to 7.62 metres deep to tap the ground
water. A pump is attached to the pipe to draw the water.
 Types of aquifers and wells.
In a water table well, the water table is at atmospheric
pressure. In an artesian well, the water pressure is greater
than atmospheric. In a flowing artesian well, the water
pressure is such that it can flow freely above the ground
surface
 The pollution of water sources represents the
important ecological problem. Depending on type
of pollution there are:
 chemical,
 physical (radioactive substances, hot water),
 bacterial, virus and biological.
 Industrial wastewater is characterized by
considerable quantity of components.

Major categories of water pollutant

 1. Infections agents - Bacteria, viruses
 2. Organic chemical - Pesticides, plastics,
detergents, oil, and gasoline
 3. Inorganic chemicals - Acids, caustics, salts,
metals
 4. Radioactive materials - Uranium, thorium,
cesium, iodine, radon
 Hazards of Polluted Water:
1. Biological Hazards
These are due to some specific agent that causes ill-
health.

Bacterial Typhoid, Bacillary dysentery,

Cholera etc.
Viral Viral hepatitis A & E,
Poliomyelitis.
Protozoal Amoebiasis, Giardiasis.
Helminthic Round worm, whip worm,
hydatid disease
Leptospiral Weil's disease
Cyclops Guinea worm.
 2. Other Hazards

a. GIT disturbances due to Na ++, Mg ++

& Ca++ ions, e.g) increased MgSO4 lead to
diarrhea.
b. Lead poisoning
c. Iodine deficiency
d. Fluorine deficiency
e. Hardness of water
f. Infant methaemoglobinemia.
 Impure water may be purified by either
of the following methods:

A. Natural
 (a) Pounding or Storage.
 (b) Oxidation and Settlement.
B. Artificial
I. Physical
 Distillation.
 Boiling.
II. Chemical
 Precipitation.
 Disinfection or Sterilization.
III. Filtration
 "Biological" or "Slow Sand" Filtration.
 "Rapid Sand" or "Mechanical" Filtration.
 Domestic Filtration.
 PURIFICATION OF WATER
Purification of water is of great
importance in community medicine. It
may be considered under two headings.
 Purification of water on large scale
 Purification of water on small scale

Three main steps in purification

of water on large scale:
Storage, Filtration, Chlorination
 1. Storage:
Water is drawn out from source and
impounded in natural or artificial reservoirs.
Storage provides a reserve of water from which
further pollution is excluded.
Advantages
 Physical — About 90% of suspended impurities
settle down in 24 hours by gravity.
 Chemical — The aerobic bacteria oxidize the
organic matter present in water with the aid of
dissolved oxygen. As a result the content of free
ammonia is reduced and a rise in nitrates occur.
 Biological — 90 % of total bacterial count drops in
first 5 - 7 days.
 2. Filtration
Filtration is important because
98 – 99 % of bacteria are removed by
filtration, a part from other impurities.
Two types of filters are in use, they are:

 a. Slow sand filters (biological

filters)
 b. Rapid sand filters (Mechanical
filters)
 Slow sand filter

Supernata
nt (raw) water:
Sand bed
Vital Layer
 Under -
drainage system
 Filter control valves:
The filter is equipped with certain valves and
devices which are incorporated in the outlet pipe
system maintaining a steady rate of filtration.
When the vital layer becomes dense and
resistance to the passage of water is increased the
supernatant water is drained off Sand bed is
cleaned by scrapping of the top portion of the sand
layer to a depth of 1 - 2 cms. Scrapping is done 20 -
30 times.
The process is known as Filter Cleaning.
 b. Rapid Sand Filter
Rapid sand filters are of two types,
the gravity type and the pressure type.
Both the types are in use. The following
steps are involved in the purification of
water by rapid sand filters.
i. Coagulation:
ii. Rapid mixing:
iii. Flocculation:
iv. Sedimentation:
v. Filtration:
A complete system of water supply
 Filter Beds:

Back - Washing:
Rapid sand filters need frequent washing daily or
weekly. Washing is accomplished by reversing the flow of
water through the sand bed, which is called "back-washing".
Back - washing dislodges the impurities and cleans up the
sand bed.
 Comparison of Rapid & Slow Sand Filters.

Slow Sand Filter Rapid Sand Filter

Space Occupies large space Occupies very little area

Rate of filtration 0.1 -0.4 m3/m2/h 5- 15 m3/m2/h
Effective size of sand 0.15-0.35 mm 0.6 - 2.0 mm

Preliminary Plain sedimentation Chemical coagulation

treatment
Washing By Scraping the sand By back-washing
bed
Operations Less skilled Highly skilled
Removal of turbidity Good Good
Removal of colour fair Good
Removal of bacteria 99.9-99.99 per cent 98 - 99 per cent
 Advantages of Slow Sand Advantages of Rapid Sand
Filter filter
1. Simple to construct and 1. It deals with raw
operate water directly. No.
preliminary storage is needed

2. Cost of construction is 2. Occupies less space.

cheaper
3. Physical, Biological and 3. Filtration rate is high.
Chemical quality ' of filtered
water is very high 4. Washing of filter is easy

5. More flexibility in
operation.
 CHLORINATION
Chlorination is the process in which chlorine is
added to water for purification. Chlorination is more
effective when pH of water is around 7.
Effects of Chlorine:
a. Chlorine kills pathogenic bacteria, it has no effect on
spores and certain viruses.
b. It has germicidal effects.
c. It oxidizes iron, manganese and Hydrogen sulphide
d. If destroys some taste and odour producing
constituents.
e. It controls algae and slim organisms
f. It aids coagulation
 Action of Chlorine

When Chlorine is added to water, there is

formation of hypochlorous and hydrochloric acid.
The hydrochloric acid is neutralised by alkalinity
of the water. The hypochlorous acid ionizes to
form hydrogen ions and hypochlorite ions as
follows.
H2O + CI2 ► HCI--+HOCI
HOCI ► H++OCI“
The disinfecting action of-chlorine is mainly due
to hypochlorous acid and to a small extent due
to hypochloriteon.
 Principles of Chlorination

a. First, water should be clear and free

from turbidity.
b. Chlorine absorption (demand) of water
should be estimated.
c. At least one hour is essential as a
contact period of free residual chlorine for
killing bacterial and viruses.
d. Minimum recommended concentration of
free residual chlorine is 0,3 - 0.5 mg/L.
e. The sum of the chlorine absorption of
water and the quantity of residual chlorine
(0,3-0,5 mg/l) is the chlorine’s need of water
 Methods of Chlorination

a. By means of chlorine gas

It is of first choice because it is cheap, quick in
action, efficient and easy to apply. Chlorinating
equipment is required to apply chlorine gas to
water as chlorine gas is irritant to eyes.

b. By means of Chloramine:
Chloramines are loose compounds of chlorine
and ammonia. They have slower action than
chlorine. They give more persistent type of
residual chlorine. They have a less tendency to
produce chlorinous taste.
Chlorine Demand It is the difference between the
amount of chlorine added to the water and the
amount of residual chlorine remaining at the end
of a specific period of contact (1 hour) at a given
temperature and pH of water.

Residual Chlorine: Amount of untreated chlorine,

remaining in the water after some time as an
effective disinfecting agent i.e. 0.3 – 0.5 mg/liter
Break point chlorination:
The point at which the chlorine demand of water is
met and if further chlorine is added free chlorine
begin to appear in water
Super Chlorination:
It is addition of large doses of chlorine to the
water and removal of excess of chlorine after
disinfection.
How is water treated?

Coagulation: Alum and other

chemicals are added to water to form
tiny sticky particles called "floc" which
attract the dirt particles.
Sedimentation: The
heavy particles (floc)
settle to the bottom
and clear water
moves to filtration.
Filtration: The water
passes through filters that
help to remove smaller
particles.
 Disinfection: A small
amount of chlorine is
added to kill any bacteria
or microorganisms that
may be in the water.
Storage:
Water is placed
in a closed tank
or reservoir
where it flows
through pipes
to homes and
businesses in
the community.
 Asaka Water Purification Plant

Ozone has been used in water treatment since 1903. It is more

effective against bacteria and viruses than chlorine and adds no
chemicals to the water. Ozone cannot be stored and requires an
on-site ozone generator. In general, ozonation equipment and
operating costs are higher than other treatment procedures
Agents alternative to Chlorination
The ozonization of water
 Ozone contains three oxygen atoms. It is destroyed
in water, forming atomic oxygen: O3 → O2 → O.
ozonization is one of the best methods of disinfection:
water is well disinfected, organic admixtures become
destroyed, organoleptic features are improved. Water
becomes blue and it is equated with spring water.
 Ozone dose is 0,5 - 6 mg/l. Sometimes, higher
doses are necessary for the lighting of water and
improving other organoleptic features. The time of
disinfection is 3-5 min. The remaining ozone should make
up 0,1 – 0,3 mg/l. The concentration of the remaining ozone
0.4 mg/l provides the reliable inactivation of 99 % viruses
for 5 min.
Advanced Water Purification System
 Ultraviolet Light
Ultraviolet irradiation will kill bacteria by creating
photochemical changes in its DNA. No chemicals are added to
the water by this process. Most ultraviolet water treatment
units consist of one or more ultraviolet lamps usually enclosed
in a quartz sleeve, around which the water flows. The UV
lamps are similar to fluorescent lamps and the quartz sleeve
surrounding each lamp protects the lamp from the cooling
action of water. The killing effect of the lamp is reduced when
the lamp temperature is lowered. Ground water is usually a
constant temperature year round and so it is possible to set a
flow rate that will not lead to excess cooling.
 The effectiveness of UV irradiation depends on
• the intensity of the light,
• depth of exposure and
• contact time.
Water passes in a relatively thin layer around
the lamp; therefore, water flow must be regulated to
ensure that all organisms receive adequate exposure.
If the water is at all turbid, or if it contains traces of
iron, the effectiveness of UV is greatly reduced. In
such cases, the water needs to be filtered before it
reaches the UV system.
The maximal bactericidal effect is achieved by the
waves 250-260 nm, which pass even through the 25
cm layer of transparent and decolorized water.
The disinfection proceeds very quickly:
vegetative forms of microorganisms die in 1-2 min. The
turbidity, colour and iron salts decelerate the
disinfection, decreasing the transparence of water.
Consequently, it is necessary to light and decolorize
water before the disinfection.
 There are some advantages of UV-
irradiation over the chlorination:
 bactericidal rays don't denaturate the
water and don't change its organoleptic
features,
 they have wider biological action.
 Their bactericidal action is spread over the
spores, viruses and worm eggs, resistant to
chlorine.
Many investigators consider this
method the best for the disinfection.
 PURIFICATION OF WATER ON SMALL SCALE
•House hold purification of water
•Disinfection of wells

• HOUSE HOLD PURIFICATION

a. By Boiling:
Water should be boiled for 5 -10 minutes.
It kills all bacteria, spores, cysts & ova.
It removes temporary hardness
Taste is altered but is harmless
b. Chemical disinfection
i) Bleaching Powder (CaOCI2)
Bleaching powder is a white amorphous powder.
Produced by action of chlorine on slaked lime.
When freshly made contains 33 % of available
chlorine.
It must be stored at dark, cool, dry place in a
closed container that is resistant to corrosion.
In practise one cup (250 g) of laundry bleach is
mixed with three cups (750 ml) of water to
make a litre. Three drops of this solution are
added to 1 litre water for disinfection. Contact
period is 30 minutes to 60 minutes.
ii.) Chlorine Solution
Chlorine solution may be prepared from bleaching powder.
* If 4 kg of bleaching powder with 25 % available chlorine is
mixed with 20 litres of water, it will give a 5% solution of
chlorine.
* This solution should be kept in dark, cool and dry place in
closed container
iii. Chlorine tablets
Available under different trade
name e.g. Halazone
One tablet of 0.5 g is sufficient to
disinfect 20 litres of water. Used in
camps and during travel.

iv. Iodine:
Two drops of 2 % ethanol solution
of iodine is used. A contact period
of 20 - 30 minute is sufficient for 1 DUAL CHLORINE
litre water. TABLET CHAMBER
UNIT — CAN HOLD UP
TO 50 TABLETS

v. Potassium Permanganate.
It is a powerful oxidizing agent but not
recommended as it alters colours, smell and taste of
water.
C. By Filtration
Water can be filtered and is purified. Different filters are.

Doulton water filters have

a unique 3-stage filtration
system. The first stage is
the Ceramic filter. This
provides a physical barrier
that traps and reduces
parasites, particulates,
turbidity, rust, and dirt
greater than 0.9 microns
in size. The second stage
is High Density Activated
Carbon, which reduces
chlorine, bad taste and
odor. The third stage is a
Heavy Metal removing
compound that reduces
lead.
DISINFECTION OF
WELL
Wells are main source
of water in rural area.
The most effective
and cheapest method
of disinfecting wells is
by bleaching powder.
Disinfection of well is
required in normal
days and during
epidemics.
 Steps:
1. Find volume of water in well.
Measure depth of water column — (h)
metres
Measure the diameter of well— (d)
metres
Substitute (h) & (d) in:
Volume (litres) = π x d2 x h x 1000
π = 3.14 4
One cubic metre - 1,000 litres of water
2. Find amount of bleaching
powder required
Measures by Horrock's apparatus.
Roughly 2.5 gm of good quality
bleaching powder would be required
to disinfect 1,000 litres of water.
3. Dissolve bleaching powder in water
The calculated amount of bleaching powder is placed in a
bucket (not more than 100 g in one bucket) and made into a thin
paste. More water added till bucket is 3/4 full. The contents are
stirred and allowed to stand for 5 - 10 minutes. When lime settles
down, the supernatant solution which is chlorine solution is
transferred to another bucket.
4. Delivery of Chlorine solution into the well.
The bucket containing the supernatant chlorine solution is
lowered some distance below surface water. The well water is
agitated by moving the bucket violently both vertically and
laterally. Note: The precipitate or lime is never entered in well
because it increases the hardness of water.
5. Contact period - 1 hour contact period is required.
6. Ortho-Tolidine test: It is done to list for residual chlorine at the
end of one hour. If "free" residual chlorine level is less than 0.5
mg/ litre, then procedure should be repeated, before water is
drawn.
 EXPRESS METHODS OF WATER QUALITY
IMPROVING
 Deodorization - elimination of smack and odour of water
by aeration, usage of oxidants (ozonization, dioxide of
chlorine, large doses of chlorine, potassium
permanganate), filtrating through a layer of absorbent
coal, by introduction in water to sedimentation of
absorbent coal.
 Deironation is carried out by spraying water with the
purpose of aeration in graduation towers. Thus, bivalent
iron is oxydated in ferric hydroxide, which sediments in
settling tank, or delays on the filter.
 Softening or Removal of hardness
I.Temporary Hardness
a. Boiling
b. Addition of lime
c. Addition of sodium carbonate
d. Permutit process
II. Permanent Hardness
a. Addition of sodium carbonate
b. Permutit process/ Base exchange process.

Boiling:
It removes temporary hardness by expelling carbon
dioxide and precipitating the insoluble calcium carbonate.
Ca (HCO3)2→ CaCO3 + CO2 + H2O

Addition of Lime:
It removes temporary hardness. Lime absorbs
carbondioxide and precipitates the insoluble calcium carbonate.
Ca (OH)2 + Ca (HCO3)2 →2 CaCO3 + 2H2O
Household water softeners
typically use a different process,
known as ion exchange.
Ion-exchange devices
consist of a bed of plastic
(polymer) beads covalently bound
to anion groups, such as -COO-.
The negative charge of these
anions is balanced by Na+
cations attached to them. When
water containing Ca2+ and Mg2+
is passed through the ion
exchanger, the Ca2+ and Mg2+
ions are more attracted to the
anion groups than the Na+ ions.
Hence, they replace the Na+ ions
on the beads, and so the Na+
ions (which do not form scale) go

into the water in their place.

Addition of Sodium Carbonate,
It removes both temporary and permanent hardness.
Na2CO3 + Ca (HCO3)2 → 2NaHCO3 + CaCOs
Na2CO3 + CaSO4 → Na2SO4 + CaCO3

Base Exchange Method

In this method sodium permutit is used, which is a
combination complex of Na, Al and Si (Na2 Al2 Si2OH2O)
Sodium permutit has property of exchanging the sodium cation
for Ca++ and Mg++ ions in water.
Na2 Al Si2O + H2O = Mg++/Ca++
When hard water passed, sodium permutit exchanges
Mg/ Ca and is converted into calcium and magnesium
permutit.
With time permutit loses effectiveness, it is regenerated
by adding conc. sol of NaCI.
* By this process hardness of water is removed to zero.
As zero hardness is corrosive, therefore a part of raw water is
mixed with softened water.
 Desalting
About 97 percent of the water on earth is in the salty oceans.
People have found many ways to desalinate, the process for
removing salt from seawater and brackish water. The
desalination processes used most commonly today are
distillation, reverse osmosis, and electrodialysis. These processes
produce fresh water from salt water.

Distillation is the oldest

method of turning salt water
into fresh water. Seawater
can be distilled by simply
boiling it in a teapot, and
piping the steam into a cool
bottle. The salt water turns
to vapour under the sun's
heat. The vapour rises until
it hits the underside of the
dome or glass, where it
This is a water purification condenses.
plant.
Most modern distillation plants use a process
called multistage flash distillation. This is a type
of the age-old method of boiling and
condensation. In flash distillation, preheated
seawater flows into a large chamber in which
the pressure is low. The low pressure causes
some of the water to instantly turn into steam
The steam is condensed into salt-free water.
The seawater passes through several
distillation chambers. Each of the chambers has
a lower pressure than the previous chamber.
Often, the final water is so pure that it is
tasteless, and some salt must be tossed back in
to give it flavour
 Reverse osmosis is a widely used method for
desalting seawater and brackish water. In normal
osmosis, a less concentrated liquid flows through a
membrane into a more concentrated liquid. Thus, if salt
water and fresh water are separated in a chamber by a
special semi-permeable membrane, the fresh water will
flow through the membrane into the salt water.
Electrodialysis is used chiefly to desalt brackish
ground water and water from estuaries, or river mouths.
Electrodialysis is based on the fact that when salt is
dissolved in water, it breaks up into ions, or electrically
charged particles, of sodium and chloride. Sodium ions
carry a positive charge, and chloride ions carry a negative
charge.
Other desalting processes are also being studied.
During the 1970's, several plants experimented with
freezing as a method of desalination. When seawater
freezes, the ice crystals produced are pure water in solid
form. The salt is separated and trapped between the ice
crystals.
Fluoridation is addition of fluoride to public water supplies to
reduce tooth decay.
Fluoride is a compound consisting of the element fluorine and a
metallic element such as sodium (forming sodium fluoride, used
in water supplies) or tin (forming stannous fluoride, used in
toothpaste).
Water fluoridation has been recognized as a significant method in
preventing tooth decay since the 1930s.
The maximum protection by fluoridation against tooth decay
occurs when children consume fluoridated water from birth
through age 13.
0,7-1,5 mg/dm3 of fluoride is the optimal concentration of
fluoride in water.
Fluorosis (tooth staining) was found to occur at levels
more than 1,5 mg/dm3.
 For hygienic purposes the
examination of water is
generally done under the
following heads:
1. Physical Examination.
2. Chemical Examination.
3. Microscopical
Examination.
EXAMINATION OF
WATER 4. Bacteriological
Before water from any Examination.
source is declared fit for
human consumption, it is
essential to carry out the
following examination.
 Water Quality Inspection
Division conducts inspections of
water quality from water sources to
household taps and carries out
surveys and research in order to
ensure safe drinking water.

Monitoring and control

of water quality
To monitor water
resources, raw water
taken from rivers and
lakes is periodically
inspected. Moreover,
detailed inspections,
surveys and research are
also conducted with
respect to tap water.

Sampling in water sources

 Water quality inspections

Physical and Physical, chemical and

chemical examination biological examination
Measuring pesticides by
Measuring some metals
GC/MS(gas chromatograph
and planktons by the
mass spectrometer)
electron microscope.
 Response to emergencies

Water quality inspection car

Microbiological
examination
Tests for coli form group
and standard plate count.

Inside of water quality

inspection car