Water spotters and models And

Water purification
Dr. Vasundara
1. Classify water borne diseases
 Water borne diseases
1. Those caused by infective agent:
a. Viral: viral hepatitis A, hepatitis E, poliomyelitis, Rotavirus
b. Bacterial: Typhoid, paratyphoid fever, bacillary dysentery,
cholera, E.coli diarrhoea.
c. Protozoal: ameobiasis, giardiasis
d. Helminthic: roundworm, threadworm, hydatid disease.
e. Leptospiral: Weil’s disease

2. those due to presence of an aquatic host :

a. Snail: Schistosomiasis
b. Cyclops: Guineaworm, fish tape worm
2. DEFINE WATER POLLUTION AND DESCRIBE
HEALTH HAZARDS OF WATER POLLUTION
 Water pollution Definition

• Water pollution is the contamination of

water bodies as a result of human activities
like urbanisation and Industrialisation such
that it affects its uses and leads to health
hazards.
 Water pollution
1. Natural impurities are derived from the atmosphere, catchment area &
soil.
• These comprise dissolved gases (e.g. nitrogen, carbon dioxide, hydrogen
sulphide, etc. which may be picked up during rainfall) and dissolved
minerals (e.g., salts of calcium, magnesium, sodium, etc.) which are natural
constituents of water following its contact with soil; and suspended
impurities (e.g., clay, Silt, sand and mud), and microscopic organisms.
2. Man made impurities are derived by human activity urbanization and
industrialization. These are :
(a) Sewage, which contains decomposable organic matter and pathogens
(b) Industrial and trade wastes, ranging from toxic metal salts to complex
synthetic organic chemicals
(c) Agricultural pollutants, which comprise fertilizers and pesticides, and
(d) Physical pollutants, viz heat (thermal pollution) and radioactive substances
 Indicators of Water pollution
1. Amount of total suspended solids,
2. Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) at 20 deg. C,
3. Concentration of chlorides, nitrogen and phosphorus and
absence of dissolved oxygen.
Health hazards:Water related diseases
1.Biological
 Chemical
• Toxic effects of Chemicals include detergent solvents, cyanides, heavy
metals, minerals and organic acids, nitrogenous substances, bleaching
agents, dyes, pigments, sulphides, ammonia, toxic and biocidal organic
compounds of great variety.

• Other effects :
1. Dental health : The presence of fluoride at about 1 mg/ litre in drinking
water is known to protect against dental caries, but high levels of fluoride
cause mottling of the dental enamel.
2. Cyanosis in infant: High nitrate content of water is associated with
methaemoglobinaemia
3. Cardiovascular diseases : Hardness of water appears to be beneficial.
3. Discuss Safe and wholesome water
along with sources of water
 Safe and wholesome water

1. free from pathogenic agents

2. free from harmful chemical substances
3. pleasant to the taste, i.e., free from colour and odour and
4. usable for domestic purposes

• Water is said is be polluted or contaminated when it does not

fulfill the above criteria
 Sources of water supply
• Safe yield is the yield that is adequate 95 per cent of the year.
• The selection of a source depends on two criteria :
a) the quantity must be sufficient to meet present and future
requirement
b) the quality of water must be acceptable.

• There are three main sources of water :

1.RAIN 2. SURFACE WATER 3. GROUNDWATER

a. Impounding reservoirs a. Shallow wells

b. Rivers and streams b. Deep wells
c. Tanks,ponds and lakes c. Springs.
 IMPROVEMENT OF TANKS :

1. the edges of the tank should be elevated in order to prevent

the entry of surface washings,
2. there should be a fence around the tank to prevent access to
animals
3. no one should be permitted to get into the tank directly
4. there should be an elevated platform from where people can
draw water
5. the weeds should be periodically removed
6. the tank should be cleaned at the end of the dry season.
• The addition of chlorine would undoubtedly
add to the value of sand filtration
 Well
• Wells have been classified into shallow and deep wells, dug
and tube wells. Dug wells can be katcha or pucca well. Step
well is a type of pucca well.

• Artesian wells : is, by an overlying impervious layer,

prevented from rising to its free water table level, and
therefore is under pressure. The name is derived from French
Artesian of Artois, a province where such wells were first
drilled in modern times. Artesian wells are not common in
India.
Well
Differentiate a sanitary and non sanitary
well from given models
 SANITARY WELL
• A well that is properly located, well constructed, and well protected
against contamination to yeild supply of safe water
• The criteria for a sanitary well are:
1)LOCATION: should be located not less than 15m(50 feet) from likely
sources of contamination & at higher elevation from ground level. It
should be so located that no user will have to carry water for more than
100m (100 yards)
2) LINING: The lining of the well should be built of bricks or stones set in
cement up to a depth of at least 6 m (20 feet) .The lining should be carried
60-90 cm (2*3 feet) above the ground level.
(3) PARAPET WALL: up to a height of at least 70-75 cms (28 inches) above
the ground.
(4)PLATFORM: should be of cement-concrete round the well extending at
least 1 m (3 feet) in all directions. The platform should have gentle slope
outwards towards a drain built along its edges.
 Sanitary well Criteria
(5) DRAIN: to carry off spilled water to a public
drain or a soakage pit constructed beyond the
"cone of filtration" of the well.
(6) COVERING: top of well should have a cement
concrete cover.
(7) HAND-PUMP : Manual or electric hand pump
for lifting the water . There should be an
efficient maintenance and repair service
(8) CONSUMER RESPONSIBILITY: Strict cleanliness
should be enforced in the vicinity of the well;
personal ablutions, washing of clothes and
animals, and the dumping of refuse and wastes
should be prohibited
(9) QUALITY: The physical, chemical and
bacteriological quality of water should conform
to the acceptable standards of quality of safe
and wholesome water.
Describe purification of water on large scale
and small scale
 PURIFICATION OF WATER
1. Purification of water on a large scale
1. Storage
2. Filtration
3. Disinfection
2. Purification of water on a Small scale
 Water Filtration
• Filtration is the second stage and an important stage in the purification of
water, because 98-99 per cent of the bacteria are removed by filtration,
apart from other impurities.
• Two types of filters are in use,
1. the "biological” or “slow sand” filters and
2. the "rapid sand" or "mechanical" filters.

SLOW SAND OR BIOLOGICAL FILTERS

Elements of a slow sand filter

(1) supernatant (raw) water

(2) abed of graded sand
(3) an under-drainage system; and
(4) a system of filter control valves.
Slow sand filter
 Advantages of a slow sand filter

1. provides safe and clean drinking water

2. the physical, chemical and bacteriological quality of filtered
water is very high.
3. When working ideally, slow sand filters have been shown to
reduce total bacterial counts 6v 99.9 to 99.99 per cent and
E.coli by 99 to 99.9 per cent. (3)Simple toconstruct and
operate
4. the cost of construction is cheaper than that of rapid sand
filters
 Rapid sand filtration
• Two types: the gravity type (e.g. Paterson’s filter) and the pressure type
(e.g. Candy s filter)
• STEPS:
 Steps
• (1) Coagulation: The raw water is first treated with a chemical coagulant
such as alum, the dose of which varies from 5-40 mg or more per litre,
depending upon the turbidity and colour, temperature and the pH value of
the water.
• (2) Rapid mixing: The treated water is then subjected to violent agitation
in a "mixing chamber" for a few minutes. This allows a quick and thorough
dissemination of alum throughout the bulk of the water, which is very
necessary.
• (3) Flocculation: The next phase involves a slow and gentle stirring of the
treated water in a "flocculation chamber" for about 30 minutes. The
mechanical type of flocculator is the most widely used. It consists of a
number of paddles which rotate at 2 to 4 rpm. The paddles rotate with the
help of motors. This slow and gentle stirring results in the formation of
thick, copious, white flocculant precipitate of aluminium hydroxide. The
thicker the precipitate or flock diameter, the greater the settling velocity.
 Steps
• (4) Sedimentation : The coagulated water is now led into sedimentation
tanks where it is retained for periods varying from 2-6 hours when the
flocculant precipitate together with impurities and bacteria settle down in
the tank. At least 95 per cent of the flocculant precipitate needs to be
removed before the water is admitted into the rapid sand filters. The
precipitaie or sludge which settles at the bottom is removed from time to
time without disturbing the operation of the tank. For proper
maintenance,the tanks should be cleaned regularly from time to time,
otherwise they may become a breeding ground for molluscs and sponges .
• (5) Filtration : The partly clarified water is now subjected to rapid sand
filtration
 Filter bed
• Each unit of Filter bed has a surface of
about 80 to 90 m2 (about 900 sq. feet).
Sand is the filtering medium. The
“effective size" of the sand particles is
between 0.4-0.7 mm. The depth of the
sand bed is usually about 1 metre (2 1/2
to 3feet). Below the sand bed is a layer
of graded gravel, 30 to 40cm. (1-1
1/2feet) deep. The gravel supports the
sand bed and permits the filtered water
to move freely towards the under-
drains. The depth of the water on the
top of the sand bed is 1 to 1.5 m (5-6
feet) . The under-drains at the bottom of
the filter beds collect the filtered water.
The rate of filtration is 5-15 m3/m2/hour.
 Filtration
• As filtration proceeds, the "alum-floc" not removed by sedimentation is
held back on the sand bed. It forms a slimy layer comparable to the
zoogleal layer in the slow sand filters. It adsorbs bacteria from the water
and effects purification. Oxidation of ammonia also takes place during the
passage of water through the filters. As filtration proceeds, the suspended
impurities and bacteria clog the filters. The filters soon become dirty and
begin to lose their efficiency. When the "loss of head" approaches 7-8
feet, filtration is stopped and the filters are subjected to a washing process
known as "back-washing".
• Reversing the flow of water through the sand bed, which is called "back-
washing". Back-washing dislodges the impurities and cleans up the sand
bed. The washing is stopped when clear sand is visible and the wash water
is sufficiently clear. The whole process of washing takes about 15 minutes.
In some rapid sand filters, compressed air is used as part of the back
washing processes.
 Advantages of a rapid sand filter
(1)rapid sand filter can deal with raw water
directly. No preliminary storage is needed
(2) the filter beds occupy less space
(3) filtration is rapid, 40-50 times that of a slow
sand filter
(4) the washing of the filter is easy
(5) there is more flexibility in operation.
 Disinfection
• Ideal disinfectant of water:

1. it should be capable of destroying the pathogenic organisms present,

within the contact time available and not unduly influenced by the range
of physical and chemical properties of water
2. should not leave products of reaction which render the water toxic or
impart colour or otherwise make it unpotable;
3. have ready and dependable availability at reasonable cost permitting
convenient, safe and accurate application to water
4. possess the property of leaving residual concentration to deal with small
possible recontamination and
5. be amenable to detection by practical, rapid and simple analytical
techniques in the small concentration ranges to permit the control of the
efficiency of the disinfection process.
 Disinfection of water
1. Physical methods such as thermal treatment
and ultrasonic waves.
2. Chemicals including oxidising chemicals such
as chlorine and its compounds, bromine,
iodine, ozone, metals like silver etc
3. Radiation.
 chlorination
• Chlorine kills pathogenic bacteria, but is has no effect on spores and
certain viruses (e.g., polio, viral hepatitis) except in high doses. Apart from
its germicidal effect, chlorine has several important secondary properties
of value in water treatment : it oxidizes iron, manganese and hydrogen
sulphide; it destroys some taste and odour-producing constituents; it
controls algae and slime organisms; and aids coagulation.
• Action of chlorine:
H2O + Cl2 HCI + HOCI
HOCl H+Ocl
 Principles of chlorination
1. Water should be clear and free from turbidity.
2. "chlorine demand" of the water should be estimated.
• "The chlorine demand of water is the difference between the amount
of chlorine added to the water, and the amount of residual chlorine
remaining at the end of a specific period of contact (usually 60 minutes),
at a given temperature and pH of the water". In other words, it is the
amount of chlorine that is needed to destroy bacteria, and to oxidize all
the organic matter and ammoniacal substances present in the water.
• The point at which the chlorine demand of the water is met is called the
"break-point". If further chlorine is added beyond the break point, free
chlorine (HOCI and OCI) begins to appear in the water
3. Contact period of atleast 1 hour
4. The minimum recommended concentration of chlorine is 0.5 mg/L for
one hour
5. The sum of the chlorine demand of the specific water plus the free
residual chlorine of 0.5 mg/dl constitutes the correct dose of chlorine to
be applied.
 Methods of chlorination
1. Chlorine gas
2. Chloramines
3. Perchloron or high test hypochlorite
• Break point chlorination:The point at which the residual chlorine appears
and when all combined chlorines have been completely destroyed is the
breakpoint and corresponding dosage is the breakpoint dosage.
• SUPERCHLORINATION: Superchlorination followed by dechlorination
comprises addition of large doses of chlorine to the water, and removal of
excess of chlorine after disinfection. This method is applicable to heavily
polluted waters whose quality fluctuates greatly.
• ORTHOTOLTDTNE (OT) TEST
• ORTHOTOLIDINE-ARSENITE (OTA) TEST
• Other agents:
1. Ozonisation
2. UV radiation
 Disinfection of wells
• STEPS IN WELL DISINFECTION
(1) Find the volume of water in a well
(2) Find the amount of bleaching powder required for disinfection
Estimate the chlorine demand of the well water by "Horrock's Apparatus
and calculate amount of bleaching powder required to disinfect
(3) Dissolve bleaching powder in water
(4) Delivery of chlorine solution into the well
(5)Contact period of one hour is allowed before the water is used.
(6) Orthotolidine arsenite test: It is good practice to test for residual chlorine
at the end of One hour contact. If the "free" residual chlorine level is less
than 0.5 mg/litre, the chlorination procedure should be repeated before
any water is drawn. Wells are best disinfected at night after the day's draw
off. During epidemics of cholera,wells should be disinfected every day.
 Purification on small scale
1)Household purification of water
(a) BOILING
(b) CHEMICAL DISINFECTION
• Bleaching powder
• Chlorine solution
• High test hypochlorite
• Chlorine tablets
• Iodine
• Potassium permanganate
c)Filtration: Pasteur Chamberland
filter,
Berkefeld filter and "Katadyn" filter.
FILTERS

Pasteur
Chamberland filter
 FILTERS
Ceramic Filters Such as Pasteur Chamberland
filter and Berkefeld filter are used for small
scale water purification.
The essential part of filter is candle which is
made of porcelain in Pasteur Chamberland
filter and kieselgurh or infusorial earth in
Berkefeld filter
Horrocks Apparatus
 Horrocks Apparatus
• Horrock’s apparatus is used for estimating the dose of bleaching powder
needed to disinfect 455 Liters of water
It is used mostly while disinfecting the water in a well
• Contents of ‘Horrock’s Apparatus’
• 6 white cups, each of 200 ml capacity
• One black cup with a circular mark on the inside
• 2 metal spoons (each holds 2g of bleaching powder when filled up to the
brim)
• 7 glass stirring rods
• One special pipette
• Two droppers
• Starch - iodide indicator solution
• Instruction folder
 Steps in Estimating the Required Dosage of Bleaching
Powder for disinfecting water
1. One level spoonful (2g) of bleaching powder is placed in the black cup and made into a thin
paste with a little water. More water is added to the paste to bring up the volume up to the
circular mark.
The solution thus prepared is the ‘Chlorine Stock Solution’
2. The six white cups are filled with the water to be tested
3. Using the pipette provided with the apparatus, add one drop of the stock solution to the
first cup, two drops to the second cup, three drops to the third cup, and so on till adding six
drops to the sixth cup.
4. Stir the water in the cups; use a separate rod for each cup
5. Wait for half an hour
6. Add three drops of starch-iodide indicator to each of the white cups
7. Development of blue color indicates the presence of free residual chlorine.
8. The first cup which develops this color gives an estimate of the amount of bleaching
powder needed to disinfect 455 L of the sample water.

If first cup develops blue colour: 1 spoonful (i.e. 2gm) of bleaching powder would suffice for 455 L
of water
If none of the cups develop a blue colour, this means that the chlorine demand of the water is
very high and it is better to use some method of clearing the water prior to chlorinating it