What is the relationship between the global circulation system and the major

climate zones of the world?

Temperate Climate- In the Tropical Climate- This is
mid-latitudes, 50°-60° north and a belt of relatively low
south of the Equator, two air pressure, heavy rainfall
types meet, one warm air and and thunderstorms as a
one cold. The rising air from the result of the rising air.
two cells form clouds and Places such as northern
ultimately frequent rainfall. This Brazil experience this
is typical of the UK. climate.
Cold Polar Climate- At the Sub-tropical
highest latitudes, cold air from Climate/Arid- At 30°
the polar cells sinks, producing north and south of the
high pressure. This is Equator there is high
characterised by dry, icy winds. pressure as a result of
Temperatures are low all year sinking, dry air. This
round. creates a belt of desert
regions.
WIND- Wind is air moving from areas of
high to low pressure. This means that
atmospheric circulation causes winds.
Winds are weak in high and low pressure
belts and are strong between pressure
belts.
PRECIPITATION- (rain/snow) occurs when warm, wet
air rises and cools, causing water vapour to condense.
Air rises in low pressure belts, this means that
precipitation is frequent and often intense in these
areas e.g. rainforests. In high pressure belts when the
air sinks, precipitation is extremely low e.g. deserts.
TEMPERATURE- The equator
receives the most energy from the
Sun. The poles receive the least.
Heat drives atmospheric circulation
as warm air from the equator moves
towards the poles.

You will need to be able to write about extreme weather in two contrasting countries for your exam.

AUSTRALIA
- Australia is warmer than the UK, it has hotter
TEMPERATURE.
summers and milder winters. In Darwin a city in
northern Australia the average maximum summer
temperature is 33°C. Temperatures over 40°C are
considered to be extremely hot.
PRECIPITATION
UK
- In London the average maximum temperature
is summer is about 23°C. Temperatures over
30°C are considered to be extremely hot. So
Australian summers are about 10°C warmer
than UK summers.

- Australia has much lower precipitation than the UK. It - In the UK average annual rainfall is over
is the world’s driest inhabited continent. The average 1150mm, more than twice as much rain as
rainfall in Australia 465mm Australia gets.
WIND

- Australia has stronger extreme winds than the UK
does. Australia is affected by tropical cyclones which
cause strong winds of over 118km/h. The strongest
wind recorded in Australia was over 400km/h this was
recorded on Barrow island off Australia’s north-west
- In the UK, gales (winds over 62km/h) are
rare. The UK’s strongest ever sea-level wind
was over 220km/h, recorded in Scotland in
1989.
 CAUSES
-Louisiana and Mississippi are in
the Gulf of Mexico, where sea
temperatures are often 27⁰C (this
means tropical storms can form).
-A storm formed 200 miles SE of
the Bahamas on the 23rd August
2005. By the 25th August the
storm strengthened to become a
hurricane and made landfall in
Florida. The storm intensified as
it crossed the warm waters of the
Gulf of Mexico. It reaches its
peak strength of Category 5, with
maximum wind speeds of 282kph.
On the 29th August the hurricane
makes it second landfall at 6.10am,
at the eastern edge of New
Orleans.
CONSEQUENCES
- More than 1800 people were
killed.
- 300,000 houses destroyed and
hundreds and thousands made
homeless.
- 80% of New Orleans flooded.
- 3 million people left without
electricity.
- Damage to infrastructure
(roads and bridges).
- Coastal habitats were damaged.
- The total cost of the damage
was estimated at $150 bn.
- Rescue and recovery was
RESPONSES
- 70-80% of New Orleans
residents were evacuated
before the hurricane reached
land.
- Mississippi and Louisiana
declared a state of emergency
and emergency shelters were
set up.
- The coastguard, police, fire
service and army rescued
50,000 people.
- Charities collected donations
and provided aid.
- The US government provided
$16 bn for the rebuilding of
homes and infrastructure.
- Repaired and improved flood
 LA NINA
- La Nina is when the normal
conditions become more extreme.
Trade winds blow to the west
more strongly, and more cold
water rises in the eastern Pacific.
- It causes more heavy rainfall and
floods in the west, and less
rainfall and droughts in the east.
La Nina events occur every 2-7
years.
Trade winds= Surface winds blowing towards the equator.
EL NINO
- In an El Nino event the trade winds (which normally blow
from east to west) weaken or reverse direction.
- The sinking air in the high pressure area over the western
Pacific leads to unusually dry weather. This can cause
drought as there is much less rainfall in areas like eastern
Australia.
- The rising air in the low pressure area over the eastern
Pacific leads to unusually wet weather. This can cause floods
in places that normally don’t get much rain e.g. Peru.
- El Nino events occur every 3-4 years and last for approx. 9
months.
 CASE STUDY-UK HEATWAVE, SUMMER 2003.
CAUSES OF THE 2003 HEAT WAVE
In the UK, a heatwave is when daily maximum temperatures exceed the average by 5°C for more than five consecutive
days. In 2003 there was a heatwave in the UK and in most of Europe. An anticyclone was situated over western Europe
during August. Air moves clockwise around an anticyclone, so hot, dry air from the centre of the continent was brought to
western Europe. This meant temperatures in the UK were higher than normal. The anticyclone blocked low pressure
systems that would normally bring cooler, rainier conditions from the Atlantic Ocean.

UK CONSEQUENCES OF THE 2003 HEAT WAVE

- People suffered from heat stroke, dehydration, sunburn and breathing problems caused by air pollution. Some people
drowned when cooling off in rivers and lakes.
- Around 2000 people died in the UK from causes linked to the heatwave.
- 20 people were injured when they were struck by lightening during thunderstorms caused by the heatwave.
- Water levels fell in reservoirs, which threatened water supplies to houses and businesses.
- Livestock died due to the heat, and crop yields were lower due to the lack of water.
- Trains were disrupted by rails buckling in the heat and some roads melted which caused delays.

UK RESPONSES TO THE 2003 HEAT WAVE.

- The NHS and the media gave guidance to the public on how to cope with the heat wave, e.g. drink lots of water, have
cool baths and showers etc.
- Some parts of the UK had hose pipe bans.
- A speed limit was imposed on trains because of the risk of rails buckling. Some rails were painted white to reflect heat
and keep them cooler.
- The UK created a ‘heat wave plan’ to minimise the consequences of future heat waves.
Type of plate boundary Diagram
Constructive divergent
plate boundaries.
Destructive (subduction
zones) plate boundaries.
Conservative (transform
faults) plate boundaries.
Collision plate
boundaries.
Description Earthquake/
Volcanoes
At a constructive plate boundary, two plates move apart. Volcanoes
As the two plates move apart, magma rises up to fill the
gap. This causes volcanoes at this type of boundary.
However, since the magma can escape easily at the
surface the volcano does not erupt with much force.
A destructive plate boundary is found where a continental Violent volcanoes
plate meets an oceanic plate. The oceanic plate descends and strong
under the continental plate because it is denser. As the earthquakes.
plate descends it starts to melt due to the friction
caused by the movement between the plates. This melted
plate is now hot, liquid rock (magma). The magma rises
through the gaps in the continental plate. If it reaches
the surface, the liquid rock forms a volcano.
Conservative plate boundaries exist where two plates do Strong
not directly collide but slide past each other along a fault earthquakes.
(weakness). No volcanoes are found along these plate
boundaries, but earthquakes do occur.
These occur when two plates are converging but are both Strong
continental plates. As continental plates cannot be earthquakes.
destroyed, the land between the two plates is pushed
VOLCANO DESCRIPTION

Composite volcanoes (also called stratovolcanoes) are found at destructive plate

boundaries where plates are moving towards one another. The magma is viscous
and moves slowly and can lead to more explosive eruptions. The steep sided
volcanoes are built up in layers every time an eruption occurs. Most of these
volcanoes are found along the ‘Ring of Fire’ around the Pacific Ocean.

Shield volcanoes are found at constructive plate boundaries where the plates are
moving away from each other, allowing hot liquid magma from the mantle to flow
up (by convection) and be erupted to the surface. The magma is more fluid and
spreads out from the cone, this builds a gentle volcano shape. Shield volcanoes can
be found in places like Iceland.

Almost all volcanoes occur on plate boundaries; however there are exceptions at
places called hotspots. These hotspots occur when an oceanic plate is moving over
a particularly hot area of the mantle, which creates a super heated plume of hot
magma rising up towards the crust
 CAUSES
The Eurasian plate and the
Indian plate meet at a collision
plate boundary that runs
through the middle of Pakistan.
The area is very prone to
seismic activity as the plates
meet and fold, forming the
Himalayan mountain range. On 8
October 2005, strain that had
built up along the fault was
suddenly released in a powerful
earthquake.
CONSEQUENCES
1. 80,000 deaths, mostly from
collapsed buildings.
2. Hundreds of thousands of
buildings were damaged or
destroyed, including whole
villages.
3. Diarrhoea and other diseases
spread due to little clean water.
4. Children's education was
affected as schools were
destroyed and not rebuilt
quickly
5. Around 3 million people were
made homeless.
6. Water pipelines and
electricity lines were broken,
cutting off supply.
7. Landslides buried whole
villages. They also blocked
access to roads.
RESPONSES
1. International aid and equipment such as
helicopters were brought in from other
countries.
2. Help did not reach many areas for weeks.
Many people had to be rescued by hand
without any help from emergency services.
3. Tents, blankets and medical supplies were
distributed, although it took up to a month to
reach most areas.
4. 40,000 people were relocated to a new
settlement.
5. Aid was given to rebuild schools, but some
schools were still not rebuilt 10 years after
the earthquake.
6. Government money was given to rebuild
homes, but many people had to use it for
food. After 3 years many people were still
living in temporary tents.
 How can you predict volcanoes?

- Any changes in the composition of gas escaping from the volcano can indicate that an eruption is about to
take place; particularly sulphur dioxide.

- The magma also causes ground deformation, the ground may bulge, which can be detected by sensitive
GPS instruments. Tiltmeters measure the shape of volcanoes to detect bulges.

- As magma rises towards the surface it can cause the earth around it to vibrate, which can be detected on
a seismograph using a seismometer. (small earthquakes may occur before a volcanic eruption)

- The amount of water flowing off the volcano can also be measured. If the quantity and density changes
this could signal an imminent eruption.

- Satellite imagery: particularly thermal scanning to show whether magma is rising up. There is likely to be
an increase in the temperature around the volcano.
 Earthquakes: plan, predict, prepare.

It is very difficult to predict earthquakes since they are a sudden event, with little warning.
Attempting to predict an earthquake relies upon:
1. Radon gas emissions- this radioactive isotope may be released by seismic stress before rock
fractures.
2. Electromagnetism- passing electromagnetic shocks or waves through rocks might detect
fractures beginning to develop.
3. Historic trends- looking at the history of past events might identify patterns.
4. Animal behaviour- certain animals including dogs and birds, can sense seismic waves vibrating in
advance and start to exhibit unusual behaviour.
 How has climate changed during the Quaternary geological
period?

The climate constantly changes, it always has and it always will.

1. The Quaternary period is the most recent geological time
period spanning from about 2.6 million years ago to the
present day.
2. In the period before the Quaternary, the Earths climate was
warmer and quite stable. Then things changed a lot.
3. During the Quaternary period, global temperature has shifted
between cold glacial periods that lasted for 100,00 years, and
warmer interglacial periods that last for 10,000 years.
4. The last glacial period ended around 15,000 years ago. Since
then the climate has been warming.
The graph shows temperature changes during
the last 400,000 years. The temperature values
on the graph are in comparison to today’s global
average temperature placed at 0°C . The graph
clearly shows how the cold glacial periods
alternated with warm inter-glacial periods.

Warm inter-glacial periods.

Cold glacial periods.

The graph shows the most recent changes in

average global temperature from 1880 to 2013.
It is clear that in the last few decades, average
global temperatures have increased relative to
the 1901-2000. It is this current warming trend
that has become known by the term global
warming.
 What evidence is there for climate change?

The reliable measurement of temperature using thermometers goes back about 100 years. In the UK,
reliable weather records began in 1910.

1. ICE CORES
Ice cores extracted from the Antarctic and Greenland ice sheets have helped scientists gain information
about past global temperatures. When snow falls in cold polar environments it gradually builds up layer upon
layer, year upon year. The buried layers of snow are compressed and gradually turn to ice. Scientists are able
to drill cylindrical ice cores and extract ice that is many thousands of years old. Scientists are able to
analyse the trapped water molecules and calculate the temperature of the atmosphere when the snow fell.
Data collected from ice cores is very detailed and reliable. Ice core records allow us to generate continuous
reconstructions of past climate, going back at least 800,000 years

2. SEA ICE POSITIONS

Sea ice forms around the poles in winter when ocean temperatures fall below -1.8 ⁰C and melts during the
summer when it is warmer. By observing the maximum and minimum extent of sea ice each year, scientists
can tell how ocean temperatures are changing.
The data is very reliable, but accurate records don’t go very far back.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8BgD9xul16g&safe=active
 Evidence of climate change in the past
3. TEMPERATURE DATA
Since the 1850s, global temperatures have been measured accurately using thermometers. This gives a
reliable but short term record of temperature change.
Weather stations are not evenly distributed across the world, data from some areas is patchy.

4. DIARIES AND PAINTINGS

Historical diaries can show what the climate was like in the past e.g. by giving the dates of harvests (early
harvest suggests warm weather). Paintings of fairs and markets on frozen rivers show that winters in
Europe were much colder 500 years ago than they are now.
Diaries and paintings are not very reliable, as they just give one person’s viewpoint.
 What is the recent evidence of climate change?

Evidence of climate change comes from a number of sources.

1. GLOBAL TEMPERATURE DATA 2. SHRINKING ICE SHEETS AND GLACIERS

Between 2008-12 there is a warming trend for most There is plenty of evidence from around the world of melting ice.
of the world. NASA suggests that average global - The snow of Kilimanjaro has melted by 80% since 1912.
temperatures have increased by 0.6°C since 1950. - Glaciers in parts of the Himalayas could disappear by 2035.
- Monitoring of the Greenland ice sheet by NASA suggests that it is
The graph shows temperature anomalies for the shrinking.
period 2008-2012. There is a warming trend for most - 1n 1910 Glacier National Park (USA) has about 150 glaciers, there
of the world are now fewer than 30.
- The Muir Glacier (Alaska, USA) has retreated by 50km in the last
3. SEA LEVEL CHANGE 120 years.
The average global sea level has risen between 10cm
and 20cm in the past 100 years. There are two
reasons why sea levels have risen:
- When temperatures rise and ice melts, more
water flows to the seas from glaciers and ice
caps.
- When ocean water warms it expands in volume;
this is called thermal expansion.
 Some natural factors are possible causes of climate change.

Milankovitch Cycles Sunspots Volcanic

Activity
ECCENTRICITY (ORBIT)- Stretch
Earth orbits the sun in a nearly perfect circle.
However, over a period of approximately 100,000
years the orbit changes slowly from a circle to an
oval and back again. When the shape is oval, Earth
is much closer to the sun at some times of the year
and further away at other times of the year.
OBLIQUITY (TILT)
The Earth is tilted on its axis. Over roughly 40,000
years the angle of tilt changes slowly from 21.5° to
24.5°. We get our summer when the Earth is tilted
towards the Sun in its annual orbit and winter when
it is tilted away from the sun. With less tilt our
summers are cooler and winters are milder. In the
21st century the angle of tilt is 23.5 degrees.
PRECESSION (WOBBLE)
As the Earth spins on its axis it wobbles. The
wobble is caused by the force of gravity from the
sun and the moon. The axis wobbles from one
extreme to the other over a period of approx.
23,000 years. This can change the severity of the
seasons and which hemisphere is closest to the sun
at different times of the year.
 What impacts have human activities had on climate change?

Scientists believe that human activities are to partly blame for the rapid rise in temperature (global warming). In order
to understand how this is possible we need to understand a natural feature of the atmosphere called the greenhouse
effect.
What is the greenhouse effect?
- Heat in the form of short-wave solar radiation travels to reach the Earth’s outer atmosphere.
- As it passes through the atmosphere some is absorbed by gases and liquids and some is reflected.
- Radiation that reaches the Earth warms up the surface.
- This warmth is then released in the form of long-wave infrared radiation.
- The heat is easily absorbed by liquids and greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, particularly carbon dioxide, methane
and nitrous oxides.
- Some heat escapes to space.

The warm atmosphere acts like a blanket over the Earth, keeping us warm. Without the greenhouse effect, it would be
too cold for life to exist on Earth.
There is scientific agreement that human activities are causing global
warming, by making the greenhouse effect stronger. This is called
the ENHANCED GREENHOUSE EFFECT. Humans are
increasing the concentration of greenhouse gases by:

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 There is scientific agreement that human activities are causing global warming, by making the
greenhouse effect stronger. This is called the ENHANCED GREENHOUSE EFFECT. Humans are
increasing the concentration of greenhouse gases by:

FARMING BURNING FOSSIL FUELS

1. Farming of livestock produces a lot of methane (cows CO2 is released into the atmosphere when fossil fuels
love to pass wind) like coal, oil and gas are burnt.
2. Rice paddies contribute to global warming because
flooded fields emit methane.

DEFORESTATION CEMENT PRODUCTION

Plants remove CO2 from the atmosphere and convert it Cement is made from limestone, which contains carbon.
into organic matter using photosynthesis. When trees When cement is produced lots of C02 is released into
are cut down, they stop taking in CO2. the atmosphere.
 What is the enhanced greenhouse effect?

Scientists believe that in recent decades the natural greenhouse effect has become more effective at
retaining infrared heat given off from the Earth. The ‘blanket’ around the Earth has in effect become
warmer. The main reason why this has happened is because human activities such as burning fossil fuels,
deforestation and emissions from vehicles have increased the concentration of the greenhouse gases in
the atmosphere. Scientists call this the enhanced greenhouse effect.

The main greenhouse gases.

Gas Causes Gas Percentage

Carbon dioxide - Burning of fossil fuels (coal, oil and
Carbon dioxide 59%
(CO2) gas).
(burning fossil
- Deforestation (burning wood).
Methane (CH4) - Emitted from livestock and rice fuels)
Carbon dioxide 18%
cultivation.
Nitrous oxides - Vehicle exhausts. (deforestation)
Methane 14%
(NO2)
Nitrous oxide 9%
Produce either a bar chart
or pie chart to show the
results.
 What are the worldwide impacts of climate change?

Climate change is having and will have a significant impacts on people and human activities.

Sea level rise
There has been an average rise in sea level of 20cm
since 1900. Rising sea levels threaten low-lying coastal
areas with flooding and more frequent damage from
storms and tropical cyclones.
Social- these are the impacts on our lives and our lifestyles.
Economic- these are the impacts to do with money.
Environmental- these impacts involve changes to natural ecosystems.

SOCIAL ECONOMIC ENVIRONMENTAL

600 million people live in coastal areas Valuable agricultural land may be lost Fresh water sources such as wells
that are less than 10m above sea level. to the sea. could be polluted by salty seawater,
this is called salinization.
People may suffer increased frequency Transport systems, such as railways Damage could occur to coastal
of flooding and storm damage. People and roads may be damaged or ecosystems.
may lose their jobs, for example in destroyed.
fishing.
The number of people made homeless Many countries depend on coastal Damage to coral reefs by storms will
due to flooding will increase. tourism as their source of income. affect fish breeding grounds and
Beaches may be eroded or flooded , ecosystems.
forcing hotels to close.
 Environmental impacts
1. Temperatures are expected to rise by
0.3 and 4.8°C between 2005 and 2100.
2. Warmer temperatures are causing
glaciers to shrink and ice sheets to melt.
The melting of ice on land means that
water stored on land as ice returns to the
oceans, causing sea levels to rise.
3. Species will start to decline due to
global warming e.g. coral reefs.
Biodiversity could decrease. Some species
may even become extinct.
4. Precipitation patterns are changing,
global warming is affecting how much rain
an area gets.
Economic impacts
1. More money has to be spent on
predicting extreme weather events,
reducing their impacts and rebuilding
after them.
2. Climate change is affecting
farming in different ways. Globally
some crops will suffer from climate
change e.g. maize. In high latitude
countries some farmers are finding
that crops benefit from warmer
conditions.
3. Water shortages might affect our
ability to generate power (e.g.
hydroelectric)
Social impacts
1. In some places there will be
increased threat from wildfires
which can damage homes and put
peoples lives at risk.
2. Low lying coastal areas could be
lost to the sea or flood, therefore
impossible to inhabit. This could
lead to migration.
3. Low crop yields in some parts of
the world could increase
malnutrition, ill health and death
from starvation.
Temperatures and rainfall Impacts of climate change in the UK
•It is likely that average temperatures in the UK will rise.
•Hotter summer temperatures will become more frequent and very cold winters will become increasingly rare.
•The amounts and frequency of rain will change.
•Winters will be wetter and summers will become hotter and more prolonged.
•There will be increased local flooding with more flash flooding occurring.
•This will result in increased pressure on water resources in the UK.
Severe weather
•Severe weather events are likely to increase, such as flooding, droughts, heat waves, severe gales and snowfall.
Rising sea levels
•Sea levels could rise by 40cm by the end of the century leading to further coastal erosion and flood risks.
Health
•The food we eat and the water we drink will be affected by the climate.
•There will be a change in the types of heat and cold related illnesses. For example the risk of diseases such as skin cancers and heat
strokes may increase.
•The elderly and very young will be most vulnerable to temperature changes.
Homes and lifestyle
•You may suffer water shortage, if pipes freeze in winter or drought occur in summer.
•The cost of living will increase, such as food, fuel and insurance.
•Your home may be damaged by floods and gales.
•Extreme weather may affect where you work, schools and transport links.
Agriculture
•Farming and crops will be affected by changes in weather throughout the UK which could impact on the types of crop grown, where
they are grown and their availability.
Wildlife
•Some birds, fish and land animals are under threat as their environment changes due to temperature changes. Some of these species
will not be able to adapt to these changes in their environment.
•The plants, trees and shrubs that can grow in the UK will change.