Pancreas

 conglomerate gland lying transversely

across the posterior wall of the abdomen.

 It varies in length from 15 to 20 cm (6 to 8

in) and has a breadth of about 3.8 cm
(about 1.5 in) and a thickness of from 1.3
to 2.5 cm (0.5 to 1 in).

 Its usual weight is about 85 gm (about 3

oz), and its head lies in the concavity of the
duodenum.
 The pancreas has both a digestive and a hormonal function.
Composed mainly of exocrine tissue, it secretes enzymes
into the small intestine, where they help break down fats,
carbohydrates, and proteins. Pockets of endocrine cells
called the islets of Langerhans produce glucagon and
insulin, hormones that regulate blood-sugar level
THE PANCREAS
 One of the larger organs of the digestive tract,
the pancreas is found in all vertebrates.

 The term also refers to a gland found in many

invertebrates, the primary purpose of which is
the secretion of digestive enzymes.

 The pancreas in vertebrates secretes

digestive enzymes and produces the hormones
insulin and glucagon
Function as:
 exocrine gland:
The exocrine secretion is made up of a
number of enzymes that are discharged
into the intestine to aid in digestion

 endocrine gland secreting the hormones

insulin and glucagon, vital in carbohydrate
(sugar) metabolism, into the bloodstream
 One of the larger organs of the digestive tract,
the pancreas is found in all vertebrates.

 The term also refers to a gland found in many

invertebrates, the primary purpose of which is
the secretion of digestive enzymes

 In humans, the pancreas is attached to the

duodenum, the upper portion of the small
intestine. A large main duct, the duct of
Wirsung, collects pancreatic juice and empties
into the duodenum.
The islets of Langerhans
 made up of alpha and beta cells, are patches of tissue scattered
among clusters of acinar cells.
Alpha cells in the islets produce glucagon, a hormone that raises
blood sugar levels by converting stored carbohydrates into the
sugar glucagon, which is the primary fuel of cells.
Beta cells secrete insulin, a hormone that allows cells to remove
glucose from the bloodstream and to use it.
 The islets of Langerhans also secrete, in much smaller quantities,
somatostatin, one of whose functions is to inhibit the secretion of
insulin and glucagon, and pancreatic polypeptide, whose biological
role is uncertain
 An illustration of islets of Langerhans and clusters of
acinar cellsthe islets(yellow with single cells mixed
in)have alpha and beta cells which produce glucagons
and insulin.The acinar cells (cells bundled inside red
blood vessels)produce enzyme.
Acinar cells
 The term acinar comes from a Latin word meaning "berry”
 which form bundles that resemble clusters of grapes, produce
and secrete digestive enzymes
 Epithelial cells in small pancreatic ductiles secrete bicarbonate
salts and water. The enzymes, water, and salts flow through
special ducts into the duodenum and assist in the digestion of
proteins, starches, sugars, and fats. The flow of pancreatic
enzymes and salts is controlled by the vagus nerve and is
increased when food is present in the small intestine
- insulin
 Insulin Secretion
This shows a section of the
human pancreas shows one of
the islets of Langerhans,
center, a group of modified
glandular cells. These cells
secrete insulin, a hormone that
helps the body metabolize
sugars, fats, and starches.
The blue and white lines in the
islets of Langerhans are blood
vessels that carry the insulin to
the rest of the body.
- glucagon
 Glucagon, a hormone that raises glucose
levels in the blood when the body needs extra
energy, is made in the pancreas but also in the
wall of the gastrointestinal tract.
 Glucagon and insulin work together to control
the amount of sugar stored in the body.
 Glucagon has the opposite effect of insulin; it
releases stored sugar and increases the blood-
sugar level, acting as a control mechanism
whenever the body produces too much insulin.
 Epithelial cells with the nuclei highlighted in
blue and the cytoplasm in red and green are
found in the pancreatic ductiles.
Diseases of the Pancreas

 The pancreas may be the site of

acute and chronic infections, tumours,
and cysts.

1. Diabetes Mellitus
2. Hypoglycemia
3. Cystic Fibrosis of the Pancreas
4. Pancreatitis
5. Cancer(Carcinoma of the Pancreas)
1.Diabetes Mellitus
 If the pancreas fails to secrete normal amounts of
the hormone insulin, the condition known as
diabetes mellitus develops.
 The body no longer burns sugar and the blood
sugar concentrations rise. The body now burns fats
instead. This is an undesirable state of affairs, for
the residues of fat combustion, or metabolism, are
toxic and they tend to promote the development of
acidity. Coma and death can result.
 Physicians have long known that diabetes is most
prone to develop in those individuals who are
overweight.
2.Hypoglycemia

 If the pancreas secretes too much

insulin, blood sugar levels fall, resulting in
a condition called hypoglycemia.
3.Cystic Fibrosis
of the Pancreas
 Cystic Fibrosis, incurable hereditary disorder that causes
the body to secrete an abnormally thick, sticky mucus that
clogs the pancreas and the lungs, leading to problems
with breathing and digestion, infection, and ultimately,
death.

 The resulting plugging process in the pancreas almost

invariably causes destruction and scarring of the acinar
tissue, usually without damaging the islets of Langerhans.

 In cystic fibrosis, the resulting pancreatic insufficiency

usually can be treated by the oral replacement of
pancreatic enzymes.
4.Pancreatitis
 Inflammation of the pancreas, or pancreatitis,
is probably the most common disease of this
organ.
 The disorder may be confined to either singular
or repeated acute episodes, or it may become
a chronic disease. There are many factors
associated with the onset of pancreatitis,
including direct injury, certain drugs, viral
infections, heredity, hyperlipidemia (increased
levels of blood fats), and congenital
derangements of the ductal system.
5.Carcinoma of the Pancreas

 Carcinoma of the pancreas arises

primarily from the ductal system. The
incidence of carcinoma of the pancreas
has increased slightly (somewhat more in
men than in women) and now exceeds
cancer of the stomach.
 OTHER ENDOCRINE
GLANDS
 Endocrine System, group of specialized organs and
body tissues that produce, store, and secrete
chemical substances known as hormones. As the
body's chemical messengers, hormones transfer
information and instructions from one set of cells to
another. Because of the hormones they produce,
endocrine organs have a great deal of influence over
the body. Among their many jobs are regulating the
body's growth and development, controlling the
function of various tissues, supporting pregnancy
and other reproductive functions, and regulating
metabolism
Components of the
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
 Pituitary Gland
The Pituitary Gland
 Called the master gland, the pituitary secretes
hormones that control the activity of other endocrine
glands and regulate various biological processes. Its
secretions include growth hormone (which stimulates
cellular activity in bone, cartilage, and other structural
tissue); thyroid stimulating hormone (which causes the
thyroid to release metabolism-regulating hormones);
antidiuretic hormone (which causes the kidney to
excrete less water in the urine); and prolactin (which
stimulates milk production and breast development in
females). The pituitary gland is influenced both
neurally and hormonally by the hypothalamus.
Thyroid and Parathyroid
Glands
 thyroid gland, located in the neck, secretes
hormones in response to stimulation by TSH from
the pituitary gland. The thyroid secretes hormones—
for example, thyroxine and three-iodothyronine—that
regulate growth and metabolism, and play a role in
brain development during childhood.

 parathyroid glands are four small glands located at

the four corners of the thyroid gland. The hormone
they secrete, parathyroid hormone, regulates the
level of calcium in the blood.
Adrenal Glands
The adrenal glands have two distinct parts:
 The outer part, called the adrenal cortex,
produces a variety of hormones called
corticosteroids, which include cortisol. These
hormones regulate salt and water balance in the
body, prepare the body for stress, regulate
metabolism, interact with the immune system,
and influence sexual function.
 The inner part, the adrenal medulla, produces
catecholamines, such as epinephrine, also called
adrenaline, which increase the blood pressure
and heart rate during times of stress.