Chapter 2 Transmission Basics

Digital Transmission
CHAPTER 2: TRANSMISSION BASICS

1
thuan.levan@phenikaa-uni.edu.vn
Syllabus
Week Content Notes

1 Chapter 1: Course Introduction
2, 3 Chapter 2: Transmission Basics
4, 5, 6 Chapter 3: Digital Transmission Fundamental
7, 8, 9 Chapter 4: Formatting and Source Coding
10 Midterm Exam
11, 12, 13 Chapter 5: Digital-to-Digital Conversion
14, 15 Chapter 6: Data Compression and Decompression
Course outline
I. Definition
II. Types of Signal
III. Transmission Flaws
IV. Modulation
V. Multiplexing
VI. Transmission Types
Course outline
I. Definition
II. Types of Signal
IV. Modulation
V. Multiplexing
Information
 What is the information?
• The English word “information” comes from Middle Frence
enformacion/informacion/information ‘a criminal investigation’ and its etymon,
Latin informatiō(n) ‘conception, teaching, creation’.
• In term of communication, information is presented as the content of the
message or through direct or indirect observation.
 What is the signal?
• In information theory, a signal is a physical quantity containing information ot
data that can be transmitted over long distances and separated.
• Electric or electromagnetic representation of data 5
Communication
 Communication (Transmission): (from Latin: communicare,
meaning “to share” or “to be relation with”) is usually defined as
transfer of any kind of information from one location to another
and processing of signals.
 Transmit means to issue signals to the network medium
 Digital communication means sending a stream of bits or bytes
from one location to another via transmission medium such as
copper wire, fiber optics, laser, infra red light, Bluetooth, radio, … 6
Binary Representation
 Bit – most basic information unit used in computing and
information theory. Single bit is ‘1/0’, ‘true/false’, ‘on/off’.
 Byte – a series of 8 bits, also called a character
 Computer reads and wire information in bits and bytes
Course outline
I. Definition
II. Types of Signal
IV. Modulation
V. Multiplexing
VII. Transmission and Communication Modes
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Signals
 Signals – electric or electromagnetic representation of data
 Can be coded for security purpose
 Transmitter – convert a message into a signal, which is carried to a
receiver by the communication channel
 2 types of signals
• Analog Signal
• Digital Signal
 Both types of signals are generated by electrical current, the
pressure of which is measured in Volts 9
Analog Signal
 Define: are continuous electrical signal that vary with time and
represented by a waveform
 All natural signals around us is of this type
 Waveform is characterized by 4 properties:
• Amplitude
• Frequency
• Wavelength
• Phase
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Analog Signal
Amplitude
• Analog wave’s strength, measured in Voltage (V)
• Amplitude of a signal refers to the height of the signal
 Frequency
• Frequency refers to number cycles per second
• Measure in hertz (Hz)
 Wavelength
• Distance between corresponding wave cycle points
• Inversely proportional to frequency
• Expressed in meters (m) or feet (ft) 11
Analog Signal
12
Analog Signal
 Phase: describes the position of the waveform relative to time zero
• Measured in degrees (90º) or radian (rad)
 Phase shift of 90º = shift of ¼ cycle
 Phase shift of 180º = shift of ½ cycle
 Phase shift of 270º = shift of ¾ cycle
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Analog Signal
 Example: two signals with the same amplitude and phase, but different
frequencies
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Analog Signal
 Example: two signals with the same phase and frequency, but different
amplitudes
15
Analog Signal
 Example: these signals with the same amplitude and frequency, but
different phases
16
Digital Signal
 Define: are non-continuous and they change in individual steps
 Binary signal: has two amplitude levels which represents two voltage pulse
(“1/0”, “true/false”, “high/low”, “on/off”, …)
 Digital signals composed of pulses and digits with discrete levels or values
• Bit interval – time required to send a single bit, unit: second [sec]
• Bit rate – number of bit intervals per second, unit bits per second [bps]
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Carrying Signals
 Analog signals carries analog and digital data
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Carrying Signals
 Digital signals carries analog and digital data
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Bandwidth and Throughput
 Bandwidth – a difference between the highest and lowest frequencies
that medium can transmit
• For digital devices, the bandwidth is usually expressed in the bits per second
• For analog devices, the bandwidth is expressed in cycles per second or Hz
 Throughput – the amount of data during a time period that a flow can
send or receive (reflects a real communication data rate) (bps)
 Bandwidth correlates with maximum achievable data rate while
throughput measures the actual data rate
 Throughput is part of bandwidth 20
 Bit per second – equivalent to 1 bit per second, abbreviated bps
 Kilobit per second - equivalent to bits per second, abbreviated kbps
 Megabit per second - equivalent to bits per second, abbreviated Mbps
 Gigabit per second - equivalent to bits per second, abbreviated Gbps
 Hertz – equivalent to 1 oscillation per second, abbreviated Hz
 Kilohertz – equivalent to oscillation per second, abbreviated kHz
 Megahertz – equivalent to oscillation per second, abbreviated MHz
 Gigahertz – equivalent to oscillation per second, abbreviated GHz
21
 Residential cable and DSL connections provide throughput of up to 30 and 3
Mbps, respectively
 Modern wired and wireless local area networks provide up to 10 Gbps and up to
1.3 Gbps, respectively
 3G can reach speeds of 7.2 Mbps, 4G can reach speeds of 150 Mbps and 5G
eventually reach speeds in excess of 1Gbps.
 If you want to test throughput of your network: speedtest.net
22
Comparison
23
Course outline
I. Definition
II. Types of Signal
IV. Modulation
V. Multiplexing
24
Transmission Impairments
 Define: signal which is transmitted at input and signal at output does not always
match due to transmission flaws over the transmission channel (medium).
 Consequence: With any communication system, the signal that is received may
differ from the signal that is transmitted
• For analog signals: degradation of signal quality
• For digital signals: bit errors
 Cause of transmission flaws:
• Noise
• Attenuation
• Distortion 25
Noise
 For any transmission event, the received signal will consist of the transmitted signal,
modified by the various distortions imposed by the transmission system, plus additional
unwanted signals that are inserted somewhere between transmission and reception.
 The undesired signals are referred to as noise, which is the major limiting factor in the
communications system performance.
 There are 4 categories of noises:
• Thermal Noise
• Intermodulation Noise
• Impulse Noise
• Crosstalk
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Noise
 Thermal Noise (or White Noise)
• Due to thermal movement/collision of electrons due to the heat in a conductor (wire)
• It is present in all electronic devices and transmission media, and it is a function of
temperature
• Cannot be eliminated, and therefore places an upper bound on communications system
performance
 Intermodulation Noise
• When a signals at different frequencies share the same transmission medium, the
result may be intermodulation noise
• Signals at a frequency that is the sum or difference of original frequencies or multiples
27
of those frequencies will be produced. thuan.levan@phenikaa-uni.edu.vn
Noise
 Crosstalk
• It is an unwanted coupling between signal paths. It can occur by electrical coupling
between nearby twisted pairs.
• Typically, crosstalk is of the same order of magnitude as, or less than, thermal noise
 Impulse Noise
• Impulse noise is non-continuous, consisting or irregular pulses or noise spikes of short
duration and of relatively high amplitude
• It is generated from a variety of cause, e.g., external electromagnetic disturbances
such as lighting
• It is generally only a minor annoyance for analog data
28
• However, it is the primary source of error in digital data communication.
Thermal Noise
 Amount of thermal noise to be found in a bandwidth of B Hz in any
device or conductor is
N 0  kTB  W/Hz 
 In dBW
N 0  10 log k  10 log T  10 log B
 228.6 dBW  10 log T  10 log B
• N0 = noise power density in watts per 1 Hz of bandwidth

• k = Boltzmann's constant = 1.3803 x 10-23 J/K
• T = temperature, in kelvins (absolute temperature) 29
Expression
 Ratio of signal energy per bit to noise power density per Hz
Eb S / R S
 
N0 N0 kTR
 The bit error rate for digital data is a function of
• Given a value for to achieve a desired error rate, parameters of this formula can
be selected.
• As bit rate R increases, transmitted signal power must increase to maintain
required .
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Q-function
 Q-function are often encountered in the theoretical equations for Bit
Error Rate (BER) involving AWGN channel
 The probability density function of a Gaussian distribution (pdf) is
 If and , we have normalized Gaussian

probability density function X  N (0,1
 The right side can be term as Q-function

y2
 1 
Q  z   Pr  x  z    e 2
dy
z
2
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Error Function
 The cumulative distribution function (CDF) when
Es
SNR  k
1  z  N0
 Then, Q-function becomes Q  z   erfc  
2  2 is system’s noise figure
 2 Es  1  Es  that measure of the
 The symbol error rate: Pe  Q    erfc  
 N0  2 E  N0  degradation of SNR
• is the symbol energy Eb  s
log 2 M
• M is the number of symbols in the constellation
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Noise
 Noise is unwanted signal!
 How to eliminate noise?
• Use repeater and amplifier
 Repeater – device that regenerates digital signal
 Amplifier – device with amplify or regenerate analog signal
 Low-noise amplifier (LNA) amplifies signals with a low level of noise added
33
Attenuation
 Define: a loss of power (energy)
 A signal sent via a transmission media, will lose a portion of its power in
form of heat or other form of energy
 The strength of signal decreases with increasing distance which causes loss
of energy in overcoming resistance of medium
 Attenuation is measured with decibel (dB)
 How to eliminate attenuation?
34
Attenuation
 Amplifiers are used to amplify the attenuated signal which gives the original
signal back
 Decibel can be positive if signal is amplified, or negative if signal is attenuated.
 Antenna gain is usually measured by dBi
35
Decibel
 A measure of the relative strength of two signal points
 dB =
• : the power of a signal at the end point (Watt)
• : the power of a signal at the start point (Watt)
• P [dBm] = P [dB] + 30
 Example 1: Imagine a signal travels through a transmission medium and its
power is reduced to half. Calculate the decibel
• Reduce to half means
• dB
• In dB: 36
Free Space Loss
 Free space loss, ideal isotropic antenna
Pt 4d  4fd 
2 2
 
Pr 2
c 2
• : the power of a signal at the transmitting antenna (Watt)

• : the power of a signal at the receiving antenna (Watt)
• : carrier wavelength (m)
• d: propagation distance between antennas (m)
• c: speed of light (≈ 3 x 108 m/s)
37
Free Space Loss
 We can recast the free space loss in dB
Pt  4d 
LdB  10 log  20 log 
Pr   
 20 log   20 logd   21.98 dB
 4fd 
 20 log   20 log f   20 logd   147.56 dB
 c 
 If we consider the gain of transmitting and receiving atennas

LdB  20 log     20 log  d   10 log Gt Gr   21.98 dB
 20 log  f   20 log  d   10 log Gt Gr   147.56 dB
38
Distortion and Latency
 Distortion: It means change in the shape of signal
 Latency: Also known as delay, is an expression of how much time it

takes for a packet of data to get from one designated point to another
• Together latency and bandwidth defines speed and capacity of network
39
Noise
 For any
 A signal sent via a transmission media, will lose a portion of its power in
form of heat or other form of energy
 The strength of signal decreases with increasing distance which causes loss
of energy in overcoming resistance of medium
 Attenuation is measured with decibel (dB)
 How to eliminate attenuation?
40
Course outline
I. Definition
II. Types of Signal
IV. Modulation
V. Multiplexing
41
Definition
 Modulation is the process of encoding information from a message source in a
way that is suitable for transmission
 Modulation technique is used to change the signal characteristics
 A device that performs modulation is a modulator.
 A device that performs the inverse operation which is demodulation, called a
demodulator.
 Why do we modulate signal?
 Larger distance transfer
 Accurate data transfer
 Low-noise data reception 42
Modulation Methods
• Amplitude Modulation (AM) – the amplitude of voltage applied to the carrier is varied over
time.
• Frequency Modulation (FM) – encodes the information in a carrier wave by varying the
instantaneous frequency of wave
• Phase Modulation (PM) – encodes a message signal as variations in the instantaneous phase of
carrier wave.
43
Amplitude Modulation
 Amplitude modulation or AM: the height of the signal carrier is varied to
represent the data being added to the signal
 The other factors like phase and frequency remain constant
44
Frequency Modulation
 Frequency modulation or FM: the frequency of the carrier waveform is varied to
reflect the frequency of the data
 The other factors like phase and amplitude remain constant
45
Phase Modulation
 Phase modulation or PM: encodes a message signal as variations in the
instantaneous phase of a carrier wave
 The other factors like frequency and amplitude remain constant
 It affects the frequency, so this modulation is also come under the frequency
modulation
46
Analog Modulation
 Analog modulation (AM, FM, and PM) is more sensitive to noise. If noise enters
into a system, it persists and gets carried till the end receiver.
 Therefore, this drawback can be overcome by the digital modulation technique
47
Digital Modulation
 Digital modulation modifies an analog carrier signal with another discrete signal
 For a better quality and efficient communication, digital modulation technique is
employed.
 The main advantages of the digital modulation over analog modulation
• Permissible power
• Available bandwidth
• High noise immunity
 In digital modulation, a message signal is converted from analog to digital
message, and then modulated by using a carrier wave
48
Amplitude Shift Keying ASK
 In an Amplitude Shift Keying ASK, the amplitude of the carrier wave changes
based on the messages signal or on the base-band signal, which is in digital
format.
 It is sensitive to noise and used for low-band requirements
49
Frequency Shift Keying FSK
 In an Amplitude Shift Keying ASK, the frequency of the carrier wave varied for
each symbol in the digital data.
 It needs larger bandwidths
50
Phase Shift Keying PSK
 The Phase Shift Keying PSK changes the phase of the carrier for each symbols
 It is less sensitive to noise
51
Course outline
I. Definition
II. Types of Signal
IV. Modulation
V. Multiplexing
52
Definition
 Define: transmitting multiple simultaneously signals over a single
communication line or computer channel.
 In order to carry multiple signals, the medium’s channel is logically
separated into multiple smaller channels, or sub channels
 A device that can combine many signals on a channel, a multiplexer
(MUX), is required at the sending end of the channel
 At the receiving end, a demultiplexer (DEMUX) separates the
combined signals and regenerates them in their original form.
53
Categories of Multiplexing
54
Frequency Division Multiplexing
 Useful bandwidth of medium exceeds required bandwidth of channel
 Each signal is modulated to a different carrier frequency
 Carrier frequencies separated so signals do not overlap (guard band)
 Channel allocated even if no data
55
FDM Process
56
FDM Process
57
Time Division Multiplexing
 Two ways of implementing TDM are
• Synchronous TDM
• Asynchronous TDM
 Synchronous TDM works by the multiplexer giving exactly the same
amount of time to each device connected to it
 This time slice is allocated even if a device has nothing to transmit
 This is wasteful in that there will be many times when allocated time
slots are not being used
58
Synchronous TDM
 The use of Synchronous TDM does not guarantee maximum line usage
and efficiency
59
Asynchronous TDM
 Asynchronous TDM is a more flexible method of TDM. With
asynchronous TDM, the length of time allocated is not fixed for each
device, but rather time is given to devices that have data to transmit
 This version of TDM works by tagging each frame with an
identification number to note which device it belongs to
 This may require more processing by the multiplexer and take longer,
however, the time saved by efficient and effective bandwidth
utilization makes it worthwhile
60
Course outline
I. Definition
II. Types of Signal
IV. Modulation
V. Multiplexing
61
Types of Transmission
 Serial transmission – transmission of several bits one after another through a single
wire
 Parallel transmission – multiple wires are used for transmitting bits simultaneously.
62
Communication Modes
 3 modes of communication
• Simplex
• Half-Duplex
• Full-Duplex
 Simplex
• One way communication
• Receiver can only receive but can’t reply/resend.
• Flow of information is unidirectional (broadcast), hence rarely used for data
transmission
• Example: FM radio, television, … 63
Communication Modes
 Half-Duplex
• Two-way communication
(transmit/receive) but not at the same
time.
• The communication is bi-directional
over the same frequency, but uni-
directional for duration of message.
The devices need to be transceivers.
64
Communication Modes
 Full-Duplex
• Simultaneously two-way communication (transmit/receive at the same time)
• Typically use two frequencies as channel. Each channel is used solely for
transmitting (or receiving).
• Improves the efficiency of communication
65
Transmission Modes
 2 types of transmission modes:
• Asynchronous transmission
• Synchronous transmission
 Asynchronous transmission
• A techniques widely used in personal computers to provide connectivity to printers,
modems, fax machines, …
• Codes are sent in untimely manner with uneven intervals between characters.
• Sending and receiving data is controlled by start and stop bit.
• Example: UART (Universal asynchronous receiver-transmitter), Radio, Television
66
Transmission Modes
 Synchronous transmission
• Techniques of transmission in which the transmitter and receiver synchronized.
• Codes are sent from transmitting station to receiving station to establish the
synchronization.
• Data is transmitted in continuous stream
• Example: Video streaming, chatrooms, …
67
Transmission Modes
 Comparison
68

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Digital Transmission

CHAPTER 2: TRANSMISSION BASICS

Week Content Notes

• N0 = noise power density in watts per 1 Hz of bandwidth

 If and , we have normalized Gaussian

 The right side can be term as Q-function

• : the power of a signal at the transmitting antenna (Watt)

 20 log   20 logd   21.98 dB

 If we consider the gain of transmitting and receiving atennas

 Latency: Also known as delay, is an expression of how much time it

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