CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT

NECDET ELBUĞA 2001101025

KÜRŞAT TANRIVERDİ 1901101021
TOPRAK KARAYEL 1901101043
MERT SERGEY SOYUBELLİ 2001101051
EGE ŞENTÜRK 2001101063
ORÇUN TOPAR 2001101003
MUHAMMET YUSUF ADIGÜZEL 1801101008
CREATING AND MANAGING CLASSROOM
CLIMATE
• CREATING TRUST – seen as fundamental to successful learning
• DEALING WITH POWER – basic part of teacher’s managerial role
• FACILITATING the LEARNING PROCESS – part of teachers’ process competence.
Involves setting tasks, conducting feedback etc.
• The spread of ‘humanistic’ practices in English language teaching during the 1970s and
1980s focused attention on the affective domain, and classroom practitioners opened
debate on many salient issues regarding its management. At that time, research directions
are suggested by the following:
• 1. The definitively social and emotional nature of classroom encounters – the ‘group experience’ –
is at the core of many classroom management practices.
• 2. It is widely recognized that positive emotional states are conducive to learning, so close are the
connections between cognition and affect.
• 3. The emotional-affective states of participants contribute to and are an outcome of the social life
of a classroom group and constitute a further element of the complex social-psychological world
that is created.
• We have seen that classrooms are highly complex settings. A major contributory factor is that so
much of what happens there is internal to the individual. Behavior is not always a reliable guide to
internal states, and for all classroom participants ‘reading the signs’ is a continuous process.
 CLASSROOM
ATMOSPHERE
• The ‘climate’ (atmosphere or ‘tone’:
Allwright and Bailey 1991: 19) of a
classroom cannot therefore easily be
described or analyzed with any degree
of objective certainty because it is
‘felt’ and experienced by participants
and visitors subjectively, and quite
unconsciously and instinctively.
• In Field Note, we see a teacher and his class focusing directly on the affective domain, by
responding publicly and collectively to a role play activity which has an affective element. The
teacher encourages the students to disclose their emotional responses to the activity. Also, The
classroom layout has been changed to a circle for this phase of the lesson, and the teacher has
joined the students in the circle.
• In order to develop our understanding of this and other classroom events in the affective domain,
we can record classroom activities and explore the transcripts for ‘affective markers’. Additionally,
photographs or video footage would provide data of physical responses to activities, and be
interesting to share with students and teachers to elicit information about their states during the
encounter, as well as to inform ‘outsider’ perspectives.
• In order to go further, though, we need to gain access to the participants’ inner selves. We could
interview the teacher to test Allwright and Bailey’s proposition that ‘most teachers have a good
idea of the sort of ‘atmosphere’ they would like to have in their classrooms.
• The affectively-oriented classroom management practices we might explore in these ways are
summarized in Concept 11.2. These practices are simultaneously enabling – creating the climate –
and facilitating, a combination of responding and channeling behaviours – the type of behaviour
exhibited by the teacher in Field Note 11.1. A facilitator ‘actively pays attention to the
psychological learning atmosphere and the inner processes of learning on a moment by moment
basis, with the aim of enabling learners to take as much responsibility for their own learning as
they can.
MANAGING CLASSROOM CLIMATE

• Managing classroom climate involves the following interrelated areas, aimed at establishing
and maintaining a POSITIVE emotional climate and diminishing NEGATIVE emotions:
• Control: Keeping order and calm when required; disciplining: dealing with disruptive
individuals, conflicts etc. Prohibiting or preventing students from interacting with each other.
Maintaining order so that students can interact with each other in ways that can create learning
opportunity.
• Social relations in the class: Establishing and maintaining social relations individually and
collectively – greetings/leave-taking, naming, finding out about individuals, socialising
(revealing material about self) This also includes:
MANAGING CLASSROOM CLIMATE

• Groupings: Using different social groupings (creating potential arenas for communication and
learning)
• Interaction: Helping students interact with each other; group-forming, building etc..
• Creating and developing continuity: Maintaining and encouraging ‘the long conversation’
(developing a sense of continuity to the experience and belonging through the history of a group’s
work together).
• Support for learners: Providing support for learners through various means – encouragement,
praise, challenge, feedback, a sense of achievement and progress, listening, helping students build
resilience and confidence (emotional feedback and support: use of authority to proscribe negative
behaviours such as laughing at mistakes).
• Learner motivation: Helping students build motivation, sense of identity, self-awareness.
MANAGING THE GROUP

• The creation of a cohesive and supportive group is regarded as a central management task in
creating a warm classroom climate, also, for some practitioners, a way of forestalling any
problems of discipline and control. The recent developments in language teaching away from a
preoccupation with teacher-led teacher-student interaction, prompted by the growth of CLT and
the necessity for student-student interaction and cooperation, has prompted a corresponding
interest in practices focused directly on the management of classroom climate.
• Creating a warm and ‘caring and sharing’ classroom climate is primary management goal for a
teacher in this type of classroom, where such conditions foster particular types of interaction.
• One difference between ‘weak’ and ‘strong’ versions of CLT is that weak versions
recommend small group work to practice language without teachers’ direct involvement,
whereas strong versions see learning groups and their processes as the central focus of
language learning.
CREATING GOOD GROUPS

• Even if teachers are not intending to invite students to participate in pair and small group work in
the classroom, the establishment of a good climate is still regarded as vital, and the process of
‘group formation’ central to good climate. A useful way of looking at learning groups is through
an intrinsic/extrinsic division of the aims and purposes of group activity. This division is mapped
in Concept 11.3, and provides a way of examining language teaching practices. Intrinsic group
tasks are those in which the means and the ends are congruent – students do the task for social
and emotional as well as the cognitive benefits. The process of classroom activity is the focus.
Extrinsic group aims are essentially product-focused and internally linked to the tasks themselves,
although Jacques argues that even externally-oriented tasks can also support deeper affective
aims.
CASE STUDY 1: BUILDING AND MANAGING CLASSROOM GROUPS – SENIOR 1999,
2002

• Senior’s research in Australia provides valuable insights into management of the affective
domain. In the earlier study, she aimed to find out the perceptions of 28 experienced
English teachers (predominantly female) regarding the nature of ‘good’ English classes,
using open-
• Her research establishes that the teachers believe that a ‘good’ class depends on the level
of cooperation and cohesion between members, and that the ‘single, unified classroom
group’ is the ideal ended questionnaires and extensive interviews. . Senior also explores
eight facets of the group bonding process:
• Breaking down barriers – sharing individual students’
personal information in ice-breakers: disclosure and
recall, especially in the initial classroom encounters.
• Creating the climate – teachers make deliberate mistakes:
to develop an atmosphere of relaxation and safety in the
classroom, modelling a relaxed and safe environment.
• Convincing the customers – self-disclosure of
professional competence and experience: e.g. invite
personal questions from a group at the beginning of a
course. Initial challenges to teachers’ competence were
reported in the data.
• Defining directions – developing common course goals
with a group, even if they are relatively unmotivated.
Teachers reported that this contributed to bonding.
• Harnessing the headstrong – dealing with difficult
students: giving specific roles for group-building ends,
such as good students supporting weaker students.
• Establishing expectations – teacher discloses expectations
about classroom behaviour as part of building group internal
discipline of self and other-regulation. The data reports some
dilemmas for students unused to a liberal atmosphere.
• Recognizing roles– teachers acknowledge that each group
member has a unique role in the group and that their
contributions or behaviour are learning opportunities. Over
time, shyer students are drawn into the group in different
ways.
• Maintaining momentum – the data indicate that groups do
not always remain bonded or productive, and that teachers
pay attention to this by, for example, renegotiating goals.
DEALİNG WİTH ‘TROUBLES’: FROM CONTROL
TO CARE
• Management practice is somewhere on a continuum of control and care. Control involves
coercion and the discourse of ‘commanding’. In this position, teachers exercise power,
and students are not required to take responsibility. Care reverses these tendencies. The
various dimensions of an understanding of care and control in the classroom are
summarised;
CASE STUDY 2: A ‘DİSCİPLİNE’ PROBLEM –
APPEL 1995
Appel is describing the early years of his teaching career in a large secondary school in Germany.
His study is based on a diary he kept during this period, from which he quotes extracts or constructs
incidents. As many novice teachers would testify, establishing order in a class is often the main
preoccupation at the outset of a career. It had taken a long time to establish any order and I had just about
succeeded in getting them to do an exercise when a boy from the second row of seats got up to open the
window. The windows are, admittedly, difficult to open. The boy was pulling it very hard but did not
manage to open it. Meanwhile the class’s interest had switched to him. They started to laugh. The more he
struggled with the window, the more hysterical their laughter became. At that point I lost my nerve. I could
not face another round of calming them down. Something drastic had to be done. I wrote the name of the
boy who had gone to the window in the register (which means there will be some disciplinary
consequence) and sent him out of the classroom.
• Appel remarks that in his early days as a language teacher, most of the unpredictability
and stresses of teaching arose from discipline problems, where the children under his
tutelage misbehaved, provoked conflict and tried by many means to sabotage lessons.
Appel comments on the fundamental difficulty facing teachers in this area of practice:
• The task facing a teacher is to resolve the dilemma between making a class work within
the rules of the institution and, at the same time, taking care of the emotional climate in
the classroom. Teachers are supposed to direct a class towards and through a task and at
the same time base their work with a class on a relationship with pupils that is both
personal and motivating. The teachers in Senior’s studies appeared to have solved this
problem, although there is always a fine line between authority and friendliness in
managing classroom climate.
CASE STUDY 3: INTRODUCİNG ‘ACTİVE
LEARNİNG’ TO ADULTS – ROWLAND 1993
• Rowland’s case study focuses on negotiation – of adult learners’ responsibility for their
learning, and how much control they can exercise over what and how they learn.
Rowland reports his own perspectives on the process of working on a course with the
specific aim of introducing ‘active learning’ to students and also his students’ perspectives
on the process, gleaned from their writing.
• The tutor’s view;
1- At the outset, Rowland discloses many doubts and dilemmas – for example, the
contradiction between handing over responsibility to a learning group, and the fact that,
as tutor, he would be expected to be directing matters.
2- . In the initial session, a discussion on the shape of the course led to a sharp division in
the group between those who were content to go along with an open agenda, and those
who were hostile to the uncertainties that the lack of a course plan gave them.
3- In the next session, Rowland notes a much less threatening atmosphere as the group
engaged in joint planning for a residential weekend away.
4- The residential weekend (two days away from the university) highlights the following
problems:
- The need to ‘break the ice’ to begin the group bonding process. In the event, this did not
really happen.
- The need for specific tasks to focus individual and group energies.
- There were wide variations in the group’s understanding of the learning agenda.
 Participants’ views In written reviews, the students (extensively quoted in the study)
reported:
• their worries and doubts in the initial session, especially about what the tasks were and
expectations that the process should be defined by an ‘external’ voice;
• the dynamics of the negotiating process – of alliances, arguments, strong negative emotions;
• the emerging dynamics of group support;
• the sense of struggle, difficulty, pain in the process;
• issues of group leadership, the value of listening, providing more time for self-reflection.
CASE STUDY 4: TOWARDS A HUMANE
CLASSROOM – LEGUTKE AND THOMAS 1991
Legutke and Thomas (1991) is an extended and theorised study of the experiences
of introducing and using over a long period a ‘strong’ version of communicative language
teaching with young people in state and private schools. They identify and describe many
classroom management practices in the context of building a description of a teacher’s
process competence. They include:
- The ability to build trust (they see participation in activities as a primary means of doing
this)
- The use of awareness-raising tasks to enable students to develop an understanding of some
of the emotional and intellectual processes their methodology initiated
• Setting tasks and allowing learners to proceed without interference.
• Intervening when appropriate.
• Negotiating with learners on the how and what of learning, including the use of evaluation as a
way of tapping into students’ feelings and opinions.
• The capacity to conduct feedback which is honest and supportive.
• The capacity to listen to students.
• The capacity to assert oneself without being drawn into conflict.
• The capacity to tender one’s own viewpoint and also to accept and respect other viewpoints
ACTIVITIES FOR MANAGING CLASSROOM
CLIMATE

THE ACTIVITIES THAT TEACHERS USE IN LESSONS TO CREATE A GOOD

CLASSROOM ENVIRONMENT HAVE TWO FOCAL POINTS:

1) TRUST-BUILDING
2) GROUP-BUILDING
BUILDING TRUST

Creating an atmosphere of trust

between teacher and student is the most
important goal of a teacher. Student-
centered and cooperative learning
environments are based on trust.
Acquiring the ability to accept
failures along with successful group
learning, developing self-awareness,
allowing new learning and
experimenting freely are the results of
mutual trust.
GROUP BUILDING

Teachers who want to benefit from the potential of groups in language learning have to use their own
classroom management knowledge and skills. It is the individual duty of the teacher to keep the group
dynamics in balance by taking into account all the interactions and individual differences within the group.

The group formation phase has a strong influence on the classroom climate. Forming, storming, norming,
performing, adjourning stages are carried out by the teacher.

While the teachers manage the groups, they also identify activities to create a good social climate. Because
conflicts, disagreements and unproductive work can occur in groups. For social cohesion, the teacher assumes
the role of ‘leader’ as a model and guide and makes a strong contribution to the group climate.
 ACTIVITIES FOR PERSONALISING AND
‘HUMANISING’ CLASSROOMS

Cooperative learning activities are considered an important way to improve the classroom
environment. All of the activities are focused on the development of students and language
as content. At the same time, they aim to benefit from group work and common energy that
strengthen communication.
 MANAGING THE EMOTIONS OF LEARNING

• Learner Anxiety

It is determined that the students can not express themselves adequately especially in
verbal performance during the language learning process and they have 'performance
fear'. Worrying about negative evaluation leads to embarrassment, nervousness, fear of
mistakes, and poor self-image.
 HELPING LEARNERS ACHIEVE FLOW - THE
ROLE OF SUPPORT

In ideal learning environments, a state of balance defined as ‘flow' is achieved and

students focus on the task unaware of time and place. This situation is defined as 'eustress',
which is the best performance. The teacher's role is to balance students' difficulties in line
with their current abilities and to support them in their learning task.

Flow and eustress strengthen the student and develop their sense of control. Here, the
support of the teacher is very important.
 In a study on the development of students' writing skills, the role of teacher support is emphasized.
According to the researchers, the following items are defined as the center of success in learning in
the field of proximal development:

1) Connection and emotional rapport between teacher and student.

2) Careful listening, intense dialogue and emotional support sustain the cooperative construction of
understanding, of scientific discovery and of artistic forms.
3) Teachers are able to collaborate with students in creating environments conducive to
transformative teaching/learning if they attempt to understand the students’ lived experiences,
knowledge and feelings.
A ‘PLAYFUL’ LEARNING CLIMATE

•Another interesting aspect of the emotional domain in the classroom is the function and
value placed upon ‘play’ in the language classroom.
•The students are not demonstrating passive responses to the teacher’s playfulness but are
jointly engaged in it.
• These playful exchanges serve as tools that result in awareness of language meaning.
THE ROLE OF FEEDBACK

•It is important marker in affective terms. At the F-move the learner is potentially most
vulnerable to harsh criticism or rejection. İt is therefore a vital indicator of affective
conditions.
•It demonstrates that a teacher has listened carefully to the students’ contributions so
students intuitively feel more secure and acknowledged by teachers who listen to them.
•Evaluative feedback , when accompanied by praise have a strong positive impact on
learners.
TEACHERS’ EMOTIONS

• Because a teacher leads the classroom group, they have a major role in setting the emotional
tone of a lesson that a teacher sets the tone both consciously and unconsciously, verbally and
non-verbally. A nervous teacher makes students nervous in the same way that a smiling
teacher elicits smiles, for example.
• There are several areas in which teachers can manage their own and others’ emotions
- Awareness and knowledge of one’s own emotions
- Self-motivation – being more responsible; concentrating better; improved self-control.
- Handling relationships – conflict resolution; understanding relationships; assertive
communication; cooperation.
EMOTIONAL GEOGRAPHIES

•It describes the relative distance and closeness between humans, expressed through their
interactions.
•Sociocultural – where teachers cannot understand parents from different cultures from themselves.
•Moral – where teachers’ and parents’ purposes are at odds.
•Professional – teachers are distanced from parents because of self-perceived superiority derived
from expertise and knowledge.
•Political – where power is asymmetrical or ambivalent, the relationship is distorted.
•Physical – simply the conditions for developing sustained relationships and the time available for
interaction.
MANAGING AFFECT IN ONLINE LEARNING

•Many students complain about ‘absent’ tutors. They know when the teacher is active participant, it increases the motivation.
Feedback at distance is an important issue that simply knowing someone else has read one of your posts to a discussion can raise
the motivation
•Feelings that students experience in online learning
•Frustration – the most ‘pervasive emotion experienced online’. Typical instances were linked to the failure of technology, the
difficulty of locating information.
•Fear, anxiety and apprehension– this was due to delays, or lack of information. For some, the lack of a visible audience was a key
issue; failure to operate programmes only served to increase these feelings.
•Shame/embarrassment – feelings of incompetence were quite frequent when students confronted tasks they could not do.
•Enthusiasm/excitement – for some, online learning was exciting, particularly when the content related to the learners’ lives in
some way.
•Pride – if a participant presented an assignment that drew praise from the tutor, received positive feedback from a colleague or
simply succeeding in using the online environment.
CULTURALLY ORIENTED STUDIES

• MacKay's (1993) study looked at how teachers in northwest Canada used "hygiene
resources" to reduce embarrassment and allow students to participate in class when they
were struggling. These resources included strategies like simplifying questions, using fill-
in-the-blank worksheets, and providing verbal or written support. The study found that
teachers used these strategies to make tasks more manageable and context-specific for
students who often found both subject matter and classroom activity too complex. The
study also found that these adjustments in discourse style were responsive to learners'
cultural practices and were integral to the classroom culture. The authors suggest that
these micro management practices are worth further study as indicators of acculturation
and the development of a classroom group's history.
SAFE TALK – CHICK 1996

• Chick's (1996) study looked at the implementation of communicative approaches to English teaching in the former
KwaZulu region of South Africa and how cultural and political factors influenced teachers' and students'
acceptance and use of these methods. Chick found that there was resistance to the new methodology, which he
believed might be due to the interactive styles favored by Zulu speakers being different from the European
communication practices that inform communicative language teaching (CLT). Chick analyzed a Mathematics
lesson and found that it featured high teacher volubility and high student taciturnity, with students mainly
remaining silent. He also found that exchanges were rhythmic and provided synchrony, which gave the sense that
something important was happening. Chick referred to these practices as "safe-talk" because they enabled both
teachers and students to save face by avoiding being wrong or appearing incompetent. He also linked these
practices to the difficulties of education in poorly funded schools created by the ideologies of apartheid and
suggested that despite the dismantling of apartheid, these practices had persisted.
ENGLISH IN BOTSWANAN CLASSROOMS –
ARTHUR 1994
• Arthur's (1994) and Prophet's (1995) studies looked at the use of English as a medium of
instruction in Botswana, a country where English has a limited functional role in wider society,
but is used in education. Both studies found that closed question-response patterns of talk
persisted in classrooms, despite the adoption of more communicative teaching methodologies.
They also found that teacher-centered, whole-class teaching was common, and that students
participated minimally and preferred to work silently and individually. These patterns were linked
to the teacher culture and low affective quality of schools, negative attitudes about students'
capacities to speak and learn, and students' resistance to new teaching methods, including a fear
of punishment for speaking out. These studies highlight the influence of school and local cultures
on classroom discourses and the roots of resistance to change in classroom management practices.
CODE-SWITCHING IN SRI LANKAN SECONDARY
LESSONS – CANAGARAJAH 1995
• Canagarajah's study of code-switching in Sri Lankan secondary school classrooms found that Tamil, the
teachers' mother tongue, was used for a variety of functions in lessons, including classroom management
and instruction. For classroom management, Tamil was used to open the class, negotiate directions,
request help, manage discipline, provide encouragement and compliments, motivate students, make
excuses or ask for favors, and engage in gossip. For instruction, Tamil was used for review sessions, to
provide definitions, to explain content, to discuss culturally relevant anecdotes, and for collaboration
between students. Canagarajah found that while English was used for interactions required by the
textbook or lesson plan, Tamil was used for all other functions. He concluded that the dichotomy
between instructional and management functions was not clear-cut and that the instructional uses of
Tamil could be understood as part of a discourse of lesson management designed to facilitate the
understanding of English.
 CLASSROOM CULTURE – KRAMSCH AND
SULIVAN 1996
In Kramsch and Sullivan's study of Vietnamese university classrooms, they found that when a
Vietnamese teacher used teaching materials written in the UK with a group of students, the
students and teachers "transformed British authenticity...into Vietnamese authenticity." Class
responses were frequently chorused and the talk was collaborative and accretional, with an
emphasis on verbal creativity and poetic licence. The teacher served as a mentor who guided
students in moral behaviour, and the use of language for quick responses, puns, and repartee
was valued. This resulted in a more collective approach to managing participation and greater
tolerance of seemingly "random" contributions to classroom talk. The authors concluded that
collaboration must emerge organically from the culture, and that working within established
routines of a classroom culture may be more effective in bringing about this confluence than
introducing new teaching material. The management discourse may be dominant and enabling
in classrooms or disabling, overriding instructional strategies in course materials.
RESISTING METHODOLOGY – CANGARAJAH 1993

• In the study "Resisting methodology – Cangarajah 1993", the author conducted an ethnographic
study of a university classroom in Sri Lanka, exploring the group's encounter with teaching
materials written in the United States. Canagarajah found that the students resisted the course
material and pedagogy, with attendance falling from 94% to 50% after two months and students
engaging in an "underlife" where they initiated a different discourse that mediated the course
material and challenged its values and ideology. The students also rearranged the furniture to fit a
teacher-led lecture-based mode and resisted using English as a medium of instruction. Canagarajah
concluded that the students' resistance was not focused or ideological, but rather a more general
opposition to the course material. The study highlights the importance of understanding the local
context and students' identities in interpreting patterns of participation in the classroom.
STUDIES OF LESSON MANAGEMENT

• Pedagogically-oriented studies of classroom discourse provide useful insights into micro-

level classroom management practices at work. These studies are deepened by
interpretation which refers to ‘external’ and ‘psychological insights.
MANAGED IMPROVİSATİON – 2002 VAN DAM

• In "Managed Improvisation," Van Dam studies the development of a classroom culture in a Dutch secondary school
English class. He analyses the transcript of the first lesson on a moment-by-moment basis and identifies three key
events that are important in the emergence of the culture:
• (1) Pre-lesson business, including organizational tasks and introducing the course book and routines;
• (2) The "first class question," during which a turn-taking system is negotiated and prosodic features and timing are
established; and
• (3) The Wasp hunt," in which the teacher uses a dramatic incident to establish solidarity and equal status among the
students. When Van Dam returns to the class three weeks later, he sees that the culture has evolved into a more
student-led and collaborative system, with a norm of interplay between play and serious work. Bannink also
demonstrates how an analysis of "spontaneous talk" in the classroom can reveal evidence of improvised talk
management within a framework of "rules" and contextualization cues.
LEARNER İNİTİATİVE – GARTON 2002

• In Garton's study, learner initiative was defined as an attempt by students to direct the
interaction in a way that meets their own interests and needs. This happens when a
student's turn is self-selected and gains control of the floor with subsequent uptake from
the teacher or other students. Garton found that learner initiative can lead to more
accurate student contributions and can provide opportunities for joint management of the
classroom discourse and indirectly, of the students' own learning. Garton's research also
explores the idea that classroom discourse is a form of institutional discourse that
positions teachers and learners, and how learner initiative can challenge this dominant,
transmissive view of education.
• A number of other classroom management strategies have been discovered in which
teachers overtly assist learners either to understand a task (clarifying instructions) or to
arrive at correct answers to closed questions. These are particularly striking in the studies
of bilingual classrooms (e.g. Addendorf 1996; Lin 2001) and also as reviewed by Martin-
Jones (2000) (Concept 12.3). The primary strategy in these classrooms is to use the
students’ L1 either as an amplifier to ongoing pedagogic activity, or as a problem-solving
device.
EXPLORATORY TALK WITH CHILDREN – HAYNES
2001
• Haynes has studied the use of philosophy with children in classrooms in the UK and
identified a set of skills and qualities that teachers need to facilitate this type of
exploratory activity. These include having a strong presence in the classroom, being
prepared both physically and personally, and using strategies like rehearsing, dwelling on
details, staying with the unexpected, and using hooks and bridges to engage students.
Active listening is also important for encouraging all participants to fully understand each
other.
LEARNER-MANAGED TALK – HANDOVER

• In this study, the concept of "handover" refers to the process of transferring control of a
conversation or task from the teacher to the learners. This is seen as a key aspect of
scaffolding in the classroom, and is characterized by a period of transition in which the
teacher still retains some control and the ability to intervene while the learners begin to
take on more responsibility for the activity. It is suggested that this process can be
facilitated through the use of tasks that have built-in restrictions and clear goals, and
through the use of learner-learner interaction to teach and support one another. The idea
of handover is seen as distinct from teacher-initiated interactions, and is characterized by
a sense of collective initiation and construction among the learners.
ONLINE CLASSROOM DISCOURSE

• In a study of online university courses, Goodfellow and colleagues explored the relationship
between informal online discussions and formal written assessments. They observed two
online communities and conducted email discussions with four students. They found that
students struggled to balance their desire for collective and socially constructed understandings
of tasks with the requirement to follow the "correct procedure" outlined by the tutor in written
assignments. They also had difficulty reconciling different audiences for their work, switching
between dialogic and monologue modes of learning. The authors suggest that the tensions and
practices observed in the study highlight the need for further research into collective modes of
learning online and the potential for more collaborative modes of learning in the online
medium.
SUMMARY

• Additionally, the studies highlight the importance of teacher presence, preparation, and the
use of scaffolding in facilitating learner initiative and collaborative learning. The role of
language and context in shaping classroom participation is also emphasized, with research
demonstrating the impact of teacher and learner identities on the development of classroom
culture. Finally, the challenges and opportunities of online learning are examined, with a
focus on the reconfiguration of literacy practices and the relationship between online
discussion and writing for assessment. Overall, the research suggests that classroom discourse
and participation are complex phenomena influenced by a range of factors, and that careful
analysis of these can provide valuable insights into classroom management practices.