Kwame Nkrumah University of

Science & Technology, Kumasi, Ghana

CM 254: STRUCTURAL
ANALYSIS OF BEAMS
AND COLUMNS
GODWIN K. K. ACQUAH (PHD)
CONSTUCTION TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT
COLLEGE OF ART AND BUILT ENVIRONMENT
COURSE OUTLINE
• THEORY OF BEAMS
• STATICS OF SIMPLE BEAMS

• DEFLECTIONS OF SIMPLE BEAMS

• DOUBLE INTEGRATION METHOD

• METHOD OF SINGULARITY FUNCTION

• MOMENT AREA METHOD

• STRAIN ENERGY METHOD

• THEORY OF COLUMNS

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THEORY OF BEAMS

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STATICS OF SIMPLE BEAMS

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CONTENT
• CLASSIFICATION OF BEAMS

• GEOMETRIC STABILITY OF BEAMS

• STATICAL DETERMINACY OF BEAMS

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CLASSIFICATION OF BEAMS
Beams can be classified in four different ways:

• CROSS-SECTION: Whether the cross-section is constant or varies.

• CENTROIDAL AXIS: Whether the centroidal axis is straight, curved or bent.

• NUMBER OF SPANS: Whether the beam is a single span or a continuous span

• END/SUPPORT CONDITIONS: Whether the beam is simply supported or

fixed.

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GEOMETRIC STABILITY OF BEAMS
• A beam is geometrically stable if it is able to develop reactions to all forms of
movement.

• For a structural system in a plane, geometric stability requires that there should be
at least three non-concurrent , non-parallel forces.

• For a simple there should be at least three support reaction components

• If a beam, on the other hand, is not able to develop sufficient support reaction or the
reaction are incorrectly placed for stability, then the beam is said to be
geometrically instable
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STATICAL DETERMINACY OF BEAMS
• A beam is said to be statically determinate if all support reaction components of the beam
can be determined using the equations of statical equilibrium.
• A beam is said to be statically indeterminate if all the reaction components cannot be
determined using the equations of statical equilibrium.
• The surplus reaction components are referred to as redundant, and the number of redundant
defines the degree of statical indeterminacy.
• For a coplanar structure there should be at most three equilibrium equations for each part, so
if there is a total of n parts and r forces and moment reaction components we have,
r = 3n, statically determinate
r > 3n, statically indeterminate

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 r=3
n=1
3 = 3(1)
Statically determinate
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 r=3
n=1
3 = 3(1)
Statically determinate
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 r=5
n=1
5 > 3(1)
Statically indeterminate
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 r=6
n=1
6 > 3(1)
Statically indeterminate
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 r=3
n=1
3 = 3(1)
Statically determinate
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 r=5
n=1
5 > 3(1)
Statically indeterminate
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 r=8
n=2
8 > 3(2)
Statically indeterminate
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 r = 14
n=3
14 > 3(3)
Statically indeterminate
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DEFLECTION OF SIMPLE BEAMS

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CONTENT
• INTRODUCTION
• FLEXURAL ROTATION OF BEAMS
• IMPORTANCE OF BEAM DEFLECTION
• DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION OF THE ELASTIC CURVE
• CURVATURE OF THE DEFLECTION CURVE
• METHOD OF DETERMINING BEAM DEFORMATION
• DOUBLE INTEGRATION METHOD
• METHOD OF SINGULARITY FUNCTION
• MOMENT AREA METHOD
• STRAIN ENERGY METHOD
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INTRODUCTION
• Deformation of a beam is defined as the change in its form.
• The deformation may be classified as:
• Axial elongation or contraction
• Shear forces
• Flexural rotation of the member
• Torque or beam twisting
• These deformation are caused by:
• Imposed loads
• Displacement of support
• Temperature variation
• Changes in moisture content of material fabric
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FLEXURAL ROTATION OF BEAMS
• Flexural rotation results in:
• The change in slope of a member
• Deflection of a member

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IMPORTANCE OF BEAM DEFLECTION
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THE ELASTIC CURVES DIFFERENTIAL
EQUATION
•
In deriving the differential equation of the deflection curve, the following
should be observed:
• Deflection caused by shearing is negligible
• Deflections are caused primarily by the bending action on the beam
• Deflection are small compared to the cross-section of the beam
• All portion of the beam are acting in the elastic limits
• The beam is straight prior to the application of the load
• Beam with slight deviation of the from the straightness prior to the
application may be treated by modifying the equation of the elastic curve
accordingly

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 y
Neutral
Plane

θ
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CURVATURE OF THE ELASTIC CURVE
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 •

D I F F E R E N T I A TE
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I N T E G R A T E
METHOD OF DETERMINING BEAM
DEFORMATION
• DOUBLE INTEGRATION METHOD

• METHOD OF SINGULARITY FUNCTION

• MOMENT AREA METHOD

• STRAIN ENERGY METHOD

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DOUBLE INTEGRATION METHOD
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BOUNDARY CONDITIONS

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EXAMPLE 1
Determine the deflection and slope equation(s) and the
magnitude of the deflection at the free end of the cantilever
beam in the figure below. Express the answer in terms of the
flexural rigidity, EI, of the beam.
P

EI
L
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SOLUTION
•
P

EI
x L-x
L

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EXAMPLE 2
Determine the slope and deflection function and the magnitude of the
mid-span deflection of the simply supported beam shown below.

EI

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SOLUTION
•

x L-x
L

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EXAMPLE 3
Determine the slope and deflection equation expression for the beam in
the figure below, and determine the mid-span deflection using
singularity functions

10 kN/m

EI

3m 2m

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SOLUTION
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 10 kN/m

x1 EI x2
3m 2m
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EXAMPLE 4
Determine the slope and deflection equation expression for the beam in
the figure below, and determine location and magnitude of the
maximum deflection

10 kN/m

EI

3m 3m 2m

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SOLUTION
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 10 kN/m

x2 EI
x1 x3
3m 3m 2m
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METHOD OF SINGULARITY FUNCTIONS
• It provides a means of reducing non-continuous shear and
moment expressions to those which are continuous

• For the application of bending, three types of singularity

functions are used:
• Dirac Delta Function
• Unit Step Function
• Doublet Function

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DIRAC DELTA FUNCTION
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x
xo

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UNIT STEP FUNCTION
•
W

x
xo

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DOUBLET FUNCTION
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M

x
xo

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ORDER OF INTEGRATING SINGULARITY FUNCTIONS

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PROCEDURE FOR APPLYING SINGULARITY FUNCTIONS
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EXAMPLE 1
Determine the deflection curve and the magnitude of the deflection at the free end
of the cantilever beam in the figure below, using singularity functions. Express the
answer in terms of the flexural rigidity, EI, of the beam.

EI

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SOLUTION
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EXAMPLE 2
Determine the slope and deflection equation expression for the beam in
the figure below, and determine the mid-span deflection using
singularity functions

EI

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SOLUTION
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EXAMPLE 3
Determine the slope and deflection equation expression for the beam in
the figure below, and determine the mid-span deflection using
singularity functions

10 kN/m

EI

3m 2m

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SOLUTION
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EXAMPLE 4
Determine the slope and deflection equation expression for the beam in
the figure below, and determine location and magnitude of the
maximum deflection

10 kN/m

EI

3m 3m 2m

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SOLUTION
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EXAMPLE 5
Determine the slope and deflection equation expression for the beam in
the figure below.

20 kN 10 kN/m

EI

3m 2m 5m

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SOLUTION
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MOMENT AREA METHOD
• The double integration and the singularity methods or convenient methods to
employ when the complete slope and deflection of a beam is required.

• The moment area method is more convenient when the slope and deflection of
specific sections of beams are required

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EXAMPLE 1
The figure below shows a cantilever with a concentrated load at the free end. Use
the moment-area method to analyse the beam and determine;
a. The slope of the member at the free end
b. The magnitude of the deflection at the free end

EI

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SOLUTION
•

θ
y

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EXAMPLE 2
Use the moment area method to determine;
i. The magnitude of the maximum deflection
ii. The slope of the member at A

EI

L
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SOLUTION
• θ y
A C
B

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STRAIN ENERGY METHOD
• This method employs the relation between the external force
on a body and the internal strain energy stored within the
body during the deformation process.

• When an force acts on a body and deforms it, work done by

the force is stored in the body in the form of strain energy.

• Strain energy is a scalar quantity.

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TYPES OF STRAIN ENERGY
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• The method is well suited for problems involving structural
elements at various angles of inclination

• Curved elements do not present any additional difficulties

• Independent coordinate systems may be established for each

moment without regards for consistency of positive direction
of the various coordinate system

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APPLICATION OF THEOREM
• The theorem states that
“THE PARTIAL DERIVATIVE OF THE TOTAL INTERNAL
STRAIN ENERGY WITH RESPECT TO ANY EXTERNALLY
APPLIED FORCE, INCLUDING SUPPORT REACTIONS,
YIELDS THE DISPLACEMENT UNDER THE POINT OF
APPLICATION OF THE FORCE”

• The term ‘force’ and ‘displacement’ is used in its generalised sense

and can indicate
• An applied force and its resulting linear displacement
• A couple or bending moment and its resulting angular rotation
• Torsion and its corresponding twist action
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PROCEDURE
• All external support reaction should be determined; using the equation of
statics for determinate structures and an appropriate method for
indeterminate structures.
• The displacement under the applied load is determined directly by using the
theorem.
• If the desired displacement is at some point where there is no applied force,
an auxiliary (fictitious) force is applied at that point and the displacement
found by the partial derivative of the total strain energy expressed with
respect to the auxiliary force.
• After evaluating the partial derivative, the magnitude of the auxiliary is set
equal to zero to determine the magnitude of the displacement at that point.

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REQUIREMENTS

• Application of the strain energy method requires;

• That the material is linearly elastic and obeys Hooke's Law.

• The whole system must obey the law of super-positioning

• Displacement should be directly proportional to the force producing it

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EXAMPLE 1
A cantilever beam of uniform cross-section is loaded with a concentrated force at
the free end, determine the magnitude of;
a. The deflection member at the free end
b. The slope at the free end

EI

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SOLUTION
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DETERMINATION OF DYNAMIC DEFLECTION BY THE STRAIN
ENERGY METHOD
• When a beam is struck at any section along its length, it is set in motion.
• Since it behaves elastically, the fibre stresses and the deflection of the beam
follows an oscillation which decrease in amplitude with time
• The deflection of the beam at the section due to the falling load, w, through a
distance, h, onto the beam is obtained by equating the work done by the falling
load onto the material and elastic strain energy stored in the deflected beam as
follows:
Stress
w Deflection

Time Time
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EXAMPLE 1
A cantilever beam is struck at its tips by a load of weight w, falling freely through
a height h above the beam. Neglecting the weight of the beam, determine the
maximum deflection, Δ, at the tip of the beam

EI

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SOLUTION w

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THEORY OF COLUMNS

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INTRODUCTION
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• Compression members do not always fail by crushing but also by bending, ie
buckling.

• This usually occurs in long compression members.

• The load at which a column buckles is referred to as the buckling load, critical
load or crippling load, and the column is said to have developed an elastic
instability.

• The value of the buckling load is lower than that of the crushing load. Buckling
load is generally low for long columns and high for short columns.

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EULER’S COLUMN THEORY
• ASSUMPTION
• Initially the column is perfectly straight and the load applied is
truly axial.
• The cross-section of the column is uniform throughout its length
• The column material is perfectly elastic, homogenous, isotropic
and thus obey the hooks law
• The length of the column is very large compared to the cross-
sectional dimensions
• The shortening of column, due to direct compression (being very
small) is neglected
• The failure of column occurs due to buckling alone
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 SIGN CONVENTION
• A moment that bends the column with convexity towards its initial
central line is positive
• A moment that bends the column with concavity towards its initial
central line is negative

TYPES OF END CONDITION FOR COLUMNS

 Both end hinged
 Both ends fixed
 One end is fixed and the other hinged
 One end is fixed and the other free
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COLUMNS END CONDITION AND THEIR
CRIPPLING LOADS
COLUMN END CONDITION CRIPPLING LOAD

Columns with both ends hinged

Columns with both ends fixed

Columns with one end fixed and

the other end hinged
Columns with one end fixed and
the other free
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EQUIVALENT LENGTH OF A COLUMN
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EQUIVALENT LENGTHS FOR COLUMN END
CONDITION
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN EQUIVALENT
COLUMN END CONDITION CRIPPLING LOAD LENGTH AND ACTUAL LENGTH

Columns with both ends

hinged

Columns with both ends fixed

Columns with one end fixed

and the other end hinged

Columns with one end fixed

and the other free
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SLENDERNESS RATIO
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Thank You

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