UNIT III SMART GRID TECHNOLOGIES

(Transmission)
Technology Drivers, Smart energy resources,
Smart substations, Substation Automation, Feeder
Automation, Transmission systems: EMS, Wide
area Monitoring, Protection and control.
UNIT II SMART GRID TECHNOLOGIES

Technology Drivers, Smart energy resources, Smart

substations, Substation Automation, Feeder

Automation ,Transmission systems: EMS, FACTS and

HVDC, Wide area monitoring, Protection and

control, Distribution systems: DMS, Volt/VAR

control, Fault Detection, Isolation and service

restoration, Outage management, High-Efficiency

Distribution Transformers, Phase Shifting

Transformers, Plugin Hybrid Electric Vehicles

 TECHNOLOGY DRIVERS

Today’s electric power distribution network is highly complex and not suited to the
needs of the 21st Century.

The various deficiencies include lacking in automated analysis, slow response caused
by mechanical switches, ignorance of situational awareness, to mention the few

In the smart grid, trustworthy and online information becomes the key factor for
continuous delivery of power from the generating units to the end-users.

The impact of equipment failures, capacity constraints, and natural catastrophes,

which cause unexpected outages, can be largely avoided by online power system
condition monitoring, diagnostics and protection.
 TECHNOLOGY DRIVERS
In the past decades, to increase the quality of supply and incorporate more distributed
generation, automation of distributed system has gone up.

The revolution in communication systems has caused the idea of distribution automation.

The distribution network which once was passive is becoming active management these days. But
due to the connection of distributed generation network voltage changes and fault level
increases.

Without active management of network, the connection of distributed generation will not be
economical.

The operation performance, efficiency, reliability and quality of service is enhanced by

automation distribution.
 DEMAND-SIDE MANGEMENT (DSM)

• Demand-side management (DSM) is the modification of consumer demand for energy through different methods like financial
incentives and behavioral change by means of education.

• The aim of demand-side management is to motivate the consumer to utilize lesser energy during peak hours, or to move the
time of energy use to off-peak times such as nighttime and weekends.

• Peak demand management does not deal with decrease in total energy consumption, but it reduces the need for investments
in networks and/or power plants for meeting peak demands.

• The use of energy storage units to store energy during off-peak hours and discharge them during peak hours is the best
example.

• The application for DSM is to help the grid operators to balance intermittent generation from wind and solar units, especially when
the timing and magnitude of energy demand does not coincide with the renewable generation.

• DSM technologies are feasible due to the integration of information and communications technology with the power system.

• New terms such as integrated demand-side management (IDSM), Energy demand management is none other than the modification of
consumer demand for energy through various methods such as financial incentives and behavioral change through education
 DSM Classification
DSM is classified into three categories as follows,
1. Direct control of load:
This makes use of communication system like power line carrier to transmit
control from the utility side to the customer. The goal is to have direct control
of load, generators and storage.
2. Local load control option:
This authorizes customers to self-adjust loads to limit peak demand, e.g.,
demand- activated breakers, load interlock, timers, thermostats, occupancy
sensors cogeneration heating, cooling storage, etc.,
3. Distribution load control:
The utility controls the customer loads by sending real time prices
 Constraints of DSM
The following are the constraints of DSM,

1. Technological constraints:

They are dependent upon the use of modern communication for remote metering, billing and
local controls, and management of power.

2. Economic constraints:

These constraints involve financial advantages, investment commitments in network expansion

and properties. They provide an incentive for utilities so that business operations are diversified.
 Constraints of DSM

3. Social constraints:

These constraints deal with environmental objectives. This provides excellent

energy efficient operation. DSM options are controlled by utility’s energy cost
cutting.

4. Political and institutional constraints:

These constraints are dependent upon the government, equipment manufacturing

companies and institutional support.
 TYPES OF SMART ENERGY SOURCES

There are many varieties of renewable sources of electric energy.

The main difference between renewables and other conventional energy sources is that renewables give energy
that is cleaner and free of pollution.

Another marked difference is that renewable energy sources do not empty natural resources when creating
power.

The very notable point is that renewables are measurable to the proper size anywhere from single-house
applications all the way up to large-scale renewables, which is able to supply power to thousands of homes.
Some of the most common renewable energy resources are as follows,
Some of the most common renewable energy resources are as follows,

1. Solar PV

2. Solar Thermal Energy

3. Wind energy

4. Bio mass and Bio gas

5. Geo thermal power

6. Hydro power

7. Fuel cells

8. Tidal power
 SMART SUBSTATIONS

An electrical substation is the central point of an electricity generation, transmission, and distribution system
where the voltage is transformed from high to low or reverse using transformers.

Electric power flows through several substations between generating plants and consumer load points.

Usually voltage is changed in several steps.

There are different kinds of substations, such as transmission substations, sub-transmission substations, and

distribution substations. The general functions of a substation include the following

The General functions of a substation include the following

1. Transformation of voltage level

2. Transmission and distribution power lines connecting point

3. Switchyard for electrical transmission and distribution system configuration

4. Monitoring point for the control center

5. Protection of power lines and other apparatus

6. Reliable communication with other substations and regional control centers

 SAS

A substation automation system is a collection of hardware and software components that

are used to monitor and control an electrical system, both locally and remotely.

A substation automation system also automates some repetitive, tedious and error-prone

activities to increase the overall efficiency and productivity of the system.

 Traditional substations
Traditional substations (mechanical relays, limited visibility, first RTUs
with IO)

High availability and constant operation of an electrical substation has

always been the focus of an electrical company. More faults mean more
interruption of service to clients, and it translates to less revenue that is
not desirable to any company.

From the early age of electrical systems, engineers and operators have
always been interested in collecting useful information on different devices
in a substation so they can better evaluate the health of their system, predict
potential problems and – in case of a fault – to analyse and troubleshoot the
problem as soon as possible to protect their high values assets and to
improve their continuous service to their clients
\
 Traditional substations
Traditional substations (mechanical relays, limited visibility, first RTUs
with IO)

Early substations consisted of mechanical relays and meters that barely

supported recording and had no means of communication. Fault recorders

were capturing information mainly in the form of paper charts, so reading

and analysing the information was not a straightforward process.

Lack of communication caused any maintenance or troubleshooting to be

costly and lengthy because personnel had to be sent to substations that were

often far away and hard to reach.

 Modern substations

With the introduction of microprocessor technology, digital protection and

control devices became more intelligent.

New intelligent electronic devices (IEDs) can collect and record information on
many different parameters of a system, process them based on complex logic in a
fraction of a second and make decisions on abnormal situations to send control
commands to switches and breakers to clear the fault.

In addition to their superior processing capability, modern substation devices can

also hold information in their internal storage for a certain period and transfer this
information to third-party applications for further study and analysis.

IEDs can now send information to a local or remote user via different types
of communication.

This gives operators more flexibility on how and when to process the information
to provide a fast recovery time from an interruption in the substation.
 Modern substations

With more information remotely available, new supervisory systems

were developed to facilitate the task of a system administrator in the
control center. A Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA)
system can collect information from various IEDs in an electrical
system via different methods of communication and then control and
monitor them using various visualizing technologies – even automating
the supervision task based on predefined parameters and algorithms.

A Human Machine Interface (HMI) is deployed in each substation to

provide operators with the local control and monitoring capabilities
that are often necessary during the configuration, commissioning or
maintenance of the substation.
 Digital substation, autoconfiguration and standards

Digital control and protection technology has been evolving since the first introduction of digital devices.

The more intelligent and capable the devices became, the more responsibilities that tended to be transferred
from human to device.

Unlike early digital technologies – where an operator had to work with bits and bytes on a primitive user
interface to define every parameter of the system and make sure all elements of the system are correctly
configured to make the processing and communication work – new technologies let users focus more on high-
level aspects of the system architecture by taking care of the tedious task of defining every single detail in the
system configuration.
 Digital substation, autoconfiguration and standards

In the beginning of the digital era, each manufacturer had its own way of interpretation and implementation of
different elements in an intelligent system. These various approaches led to lack of interoperability and caused
vendor dependency.
New standards have been developed to make sure devices from different vendors will function in the same predefined
way.
This gives users more flexibility and freedom to choose functions that suit them better without having to focus too
much on manufacturer.

.
 Digital substation, autoconfiguration and standards

Although remote access to information provides operators with much more visibility to
the system, it also introduces new concerns and challenges.

Having information exchanges with remote entities – and often via shared media – makes
cyber security one of the most important considerations in any system deployment.
 Big data, non-operational data processing

In the earlier years of digital technology, limited data points

were available on each device and the high cost of
communication – as well as a slow data exchange rate –
would render it impractical to collect a high amount of data
from each substation.

Only necessary operational data was sent to control centres

and communication lines were cautiously programmed to
minimize the bandwidth and communication cost.
 Big data, non-operational data processing

Rapid evolution of communication and process technologies now offers system administrators the luxury of
polling more and more operational and non-operational data points from their substations. This information can
now be processed in a variety of ways using different software to more efficiently monitor an electrical system.
This technology improvement provides for greater sight on overall health and useful information for other
applications such as condition-based maintenance and asset monitoring.
 Substation information collection

Substation information is collected via communication protocols, physical communication and other
substation technologies.
Communication protocols
• A communication protocol defines a set of rules for transmitting data between two or more communication
parties. Protocols have been developed to serve various purposes based on specific requirements of that
application.
• Traditional protocols: DNP3, MODBUS, proprietary
• IEC 61850
 Traditional protocols (DNP3, MODBUS, proprietary)

Most of the early protocols in the electrical automation industry were proprietary protocols developed
by device manufacturers. Although proprietary protocols work especially well with devices from the
same manufacturer, lack of interoperability – along with vendor dependency – pushed electrical
companies toward standard and open-source protocols. Today, device manufacturers have adopted
popular standard protocol
 Traditional protocols (DNP3, MODBUS, proprietary)

• Unlike slow and error-prone older protocols, newer protocols can deal with different communication
mediums, recover from communication sever failures and deliver information in a more robust
way.

• Although older protocols such as MODBUS are still used in substation automation, most of the systems
have already adopted protocols like DNP3 (North America) and IEC 60870 (Europe) as their de facto
default protocol.
 Traditional protocols (DNP3, MODBUS, proprietary)

• The most deployed protocol architecture in substation automation industry is the Master-Slave
(server-client) architecture where one or several devices called slave (or server) are polled by a
master (client) device or software in some predefined intervals.

• In some protocols, slaves can also initiate the communication to send information to the master using a
mechanism called “unsolicited response.”

• Although traditional protocols require more time and effort during configuration and commissioning, they
are popular in the automation industry because they are easy to understand, configure and troubleshoot.
 IEC 61850

• Faster and more reliable network infrastructure opened the possibility of implementing higher-level protocols
that make the task of configuration, commissioning and testing easier – even though the protocol itself is more
complex.

• These newer protocols tend to move from an IT-oriented paradigm to an OT-oriented paradigm where users
focus mostly on “what” a device should do rather than “how” it should do it.

• In the early 1990s, parallel efforts were started to develop an object-oriented protocol that focuses more on the
actual functions and information of a device, rather than low-level implementation detail such as register
addresses and data type.
 IEC 61850

As utilities tried to move toward vendor-agnostic solutions, interoperability was another main
force behind new protocol developments. New protocols should make sure devices from different
vendors would be able to exchange information with the least amount of configuration.
 IEC 61850

The IEC 61850 standard was accepted by most of the utilities as a modern protocol that can address the shortcoming of traditional
protocols.

Unlike older protocols, IEC 61850 is more a suite of standards that address different aspects of a modern substation, rather than
just a communication protocol.

It defines in detail a standard model for each function in a substation plus the communication standards to support such a model
as well the methods on how the map this model into the lower-level communication.

IEC 61850 also addresses necessary hardware requirements for a substation-grade device and defines a communication language
that can be used to exchange a substation or a device model.
 IEC 61850

Although traditional protection systems tend to be completely separated from

the automation and control system – and are still relying on dedicated hardwire
signals between CTs and PTs and relays– IEC 61850 presents a system model
where protection data points could be exchanged on a shared Ethernet link. It
implements necessary measures to make sure this information will be delivered
in a deterministic way within a redefined period of time.
 IEC 61850

GOOSE and sample values concepts in IEC 61850, define the object models and communication criteria that
can be used to exchange protection information (e.g. voltage, current, breaker status) over a dedicated ethernet
link called process bus (in less than 4 ms to comply with protection system time constraints).
This reduces the amount of wiring in a protection system because all the wires between CTs, PTs and protection
relays can now be merged into one ethernet cable.
IEC 61850 also includes testing methods a user can refer to during the commissioning or maintenance phase of
a project to make sure all devices are functioning according to the requirement of the project – and to isolate
problems during a troubleshooting session.
 Physical communication: Modem, serial,
copper ethernet , fiber, radio, cellular

Being connected to a substation and retrieving vital

information from remote devices has always been a
challenge for system designers. Not all the
substations are of the same size or importance.
Many substations are in remote areas where
communication could be the biggest challenge
when it comes to monitoring a substation.
 Physical communication: Modem, serial, copper ethernet , fiber, radio,
cellular

Early remote monitoring started by using modems on telephones or leased lines. At the time when most
of the devices in the field had very limited communication capabilities, these methods of communication
were sufficient for most situations. Initial efforts were made using a gateway device in the field that
would concentrate information it was receiving from serial devices and send that information to a
master station using a modem based on a predefined time schedule. Concentrating information
would improve the communication (and reduce the cost) as sending data points in one burst would
reduce the communication time – as compared to sending small data packets from different devices
over a longer period of time.
 Physical communication: Modem, serial, copper ethernet , fiber, radio,
cellular

In modern substations, most devices communicate via ethernet links.

Data from different devices is sent to the control centers via various communication mediums.

Utilities generally prefer to install their own inter-sub communication infrastructure using fiber-optic links or radio
mesh systems but in some cases, especially in remote areas or smaller substations, using cellular modems
becomes more practical.

Although using a public infrastructure such as cellular networks can reduce maintenance costs, it also raises concerns
about security and availability.
 Substation technologies: Redundancy, time stamping, time
synchronization, logs

As IEDs improve and implement more functions, new applications can be developed to better

leverage these new capabilities. With more accurate and up-to-date information from system

elements, IEDs can provide users with better insight on system operation and general health.
 Redundancy
Although redundancy is not a new concept, new technology makes it
easier to implement and manage redundant devices. In a hot standby
configuration, two devices (e.g. a gateway) can be configured in a group
where one acts as ‘’active’’ while the other one stays in ‘’standby."

The standby device constantly monitors the status of the active device
while the active device receives information from other parties, updates
both its internal database and the database of the standby unit and sends
information to one or multiple clients.

If the standby device detects that the active unit is no longer

communicating, it assumes (after a predefined period of time) that the
active device is no longer functional and takes over the control and
continues sending/receiving information.
 Time synchronization

Time synchronization devices and methods such as GPS clocks and IRIG-B signals

have been used in substations for quite a while. The goal is always to keep the internal

clock of the devices in a system synchronized so timestamps from different sources can be

precisely compared in a system analysis. Time synchronization is also critical in a

protection system.
 Time synchronization
• New substation automation technologies offer new methods of time
synchronization.

• Unlike older systems where the time signal was distributed using hard-wired
links (IRIG-B wires, serial cables), new time protocols leverage the
communication infrastructure to distribute time signals.

• Some communication protocols (e.g. DNP3 or IEC-104) as well as NTP

(Network Time Protocol) and SNTP (Simple Network Time Protocol) provide
sufficient precision for many applications.

• However, the high-time precision that is required in mission-critical applications

cannot be achieved using these methods.

• In recent years, Precision Time Protocol (IEEE standard 1588) was introduced to
leverage existing network infrastructure to provide sub-microsecond time
accuracy for devices in control and protection systems.
 System logs, event files

With more processing power and internal storage, IEDs can now produce more information
regarding their internal activities.

Logging this information and sending it to a control center will provide operators more
visibility on what happens in the device and, in case of a problem, gives hints on where to
start the troubleshooting.

A Syslog server can also be installed in the system to collect these log files from different
IEDs and store them in a central repository for further analysis.

.
 System logs, event files

Event files can also be generated based on some changes on internal status of a device
or data points. For example, an oscillography file captures the value changes on some
system parameters (e.g. voltage, current, phase angle) during a fault. Analyzing this file
provides system engineers with valuable information on the status of the system right
before and after a fault occurs.

Similar to log files, event files can be collected centrally and made available for a wider
range of users. This central repository also makes sure information won’t be lost from the
devices – as they still have limited storage space as compared to a local server.
 Substation automation elements

Different components are used in a substation automation control system to collect

information on various parameters of the system, to monitor them and – in a higher level – to
analyze this information and make decisions based on the outcome of the analysis. Although
some devices often cross the line between control and protection systems, they can generally
be categorized into these five groups:
Substation automation elements
Gateway (automation platform)
Data concentration
Protocol translation
Data distribution
Logic processing
Distributed IO
IEDs (protection relay, smart meters, etc.)
SCADA
Single-line diagram
Real-time trending
Historian
Event and alarm management
User notification
Substation automation
elements

Substation HMI
Single-line diagram
Alarm management
System health information
Commissioning tools
 Gateway (automation
platform)
• Gateways are initially employed to collect information
from serial devices and make this information
available for a remote user, but they also include
support for more functions that are required in a
substation.

• A typical modern gateway has a modular design and

can host multiple serial and ethernet ports in fiber or
copper. Its internal storage has adequate space to
collect thousands of files and it supports sophisticated
protocols and time synchronization methods.
 As a protocol translator, a gateway can receive information from
different devices via different protocols, translate the inputs in

Protocol another protocol and send it to local or remote users. Although

growing use of standard protocols reduces the need for a protocol
translation translator there are situations where utilities still have installations
with legacy devices, but they need to upgrade the outbound
protocol for performance or security reasons. A protocol translator
can facilitate such an upgrade by keeping the legacy devices
intact.
Data Once data points are concentrated in the gateway, they can be
available to various remote and local users via different protocols.
distribution This feature of the gateway is especially useful in cases where a
device has limited outbound communication. Different users with
varying interests may want to access the same device at the same
time.
 Since a gateway collects data points from different devices in a

substation, it is the ideal place to implement some logic for control

and operation purposes. By using a well-known programming

language such as IEC 61131, input points can be created, and

Logic
processing output commands can be issued based on some predefined logic.

These points can also be sent to a control and monitoring system

in the master station.

 Data concentration

As a data concentrator, a gateway can collect information via several serial or ethernet
ports from the devices in a substation and make them available to remote users. Although
the data concentration function is not as important as it previously was, it still adds a lot of
flexibility to the system. This is especially so in cases where a cellular modem is used as
the link to a remote substation. Concentrating information and sending in a chunk –
instead of individually collecting information from the IEDS – reduces modem usage and
lowers communication costs. A data concentrator can also offer more storage to maintain
log and event files as compared to internal storage of the IEDs .
 Data concentration

Using a data concentrator also simplifies system configuration on the SCADA side. Instead
of individually setting up the devices in the substation in the SCADA system, only one
gateway with one communication link and one set of points is required to be integrated in
the SCADA system. When adding, removing or changing a device in the field, the SCADA
system only needs to update the point list without changing the communication link
parameters.
 • Although the terms RTU and gateway are used interchangeably these
days, first-generation RTUs were devices with limited communication
capabilities that were used to convert hardwired signals into digital
binary or analog data points. These devices generally had high I/O
capacities as most of the system parameters were not yet available in

Distributed I/O digital format and they communicated over serial links.

(inputs/outputs) • With the evolution of digital relays, most system parameters became
digitally available directly from relays and meter-over-ethernet links and
via new protocols – and the demand for high-capacity RTUs was
reduced. However, there are still some hardwire signals (e.g. breaker
monitoring and control, cabinet door safety switch, transformer oil
gauge) that need to be monitored or controlled by remote users –
sometimes even separately from the protection system.

• A distributed I/O device can convert a limited number of Input/Outputs

into digital values and communicate those values via a standard
protocol through serial or ethernet links.
 IEDs (protection relay, smart meters)

An IED (Intelligent Electronic Device) is a microprocessor-based device with some processing and
communication capabilities. The biggest category of IEDs in a substation is protective relays. This
device can receive information from CTs, PTs or other type of sensors, make control or protection
decisions based on some algorithms and issue commands to other devices such as breaker and
switches. Although sensor signals are still mainly in hardwired form, modern IEC 61850-based
substations can communicate digital information between sensors and relays using sample values or
GOOSE protocols. A digital relay can also generate and save log, event and oscillography files.

Digital meters are another type of IED that can measure and record main system parameters and
communicate them to a control center.
 SCADA system

A Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) system is an enterprise-level software

whose main task is to monitor and control an electrical grid system based on the information it
collects from the substations within that system. A SCADA system is normally installed in a
control room where operators can consistently monitor the overall health and function of the
electric system. To provide enough information for an operator, a SCADA system supports a range
of features and functions such as a single-line diagram and a historian.
 Single-line diagram

A single-line diagram is an interactive graphical

representation of the grid system via which an operator
can monitor different parameters of the system and issue
commands as necessary.

A SCADA single-line diagram generally consists of an

overview of the system plus multiple detailed pages for
different components of the system to which an operator
can navigate.
 Real-time trending

Unlike single-line diagrams that show the components and

connection of the system, the real-time trending function
provides the operator with a real-time chart that monitors the
values it receives from devices in the substation.

An operator can add one or several points to the chart and

follow the real-time value changes for better analysis of the
system.
 Historian
Recording information is another important function in a SCADA system.
Except for some buffering capabilities, most IEDs and gateways have
insufficient internal storage to maintain a record of real-time value changes
for an extended period of time.

One of the main tasks of a SCADA system is to record the real-time values
it collects from the devices in the field.

This information is saved in a relational database and can be surveyed

based on various filters using the historian function.

The recorded information can also be accessed directly from the database
using a third-party application for further analysis.
 Event and alarm management
• Event and alarm management is also part of the standard functions
offered by a SCADA system. An alarm can be raised by the SCADA
system in an alarm window based on predefined criteria. The
operator can then acknowledge the alarm and clear it when the
value of the point the alarm was created on goes back to its normal
status.

• Like alarms, events can also be generated based on the status of

the data points collected from the field. Contrary to an alarm
management system, an event management system doesn’t
require an operator’s intervention – as generally events are not
considered critical.
 User notification

One of the main tasks of a SCADA system is to provide the necessary

information to the right people in a timely manner. In a new SCADA
system, the software administrator can assign notifications for different
alarms and events to specific users or a group of users and send them
email or text message notifications based on that list.
 Substation HMI

A Human Machine Interface (HMI), is a stripped-down version of a SCADA system that is used
locally in a substation – especially during commissioning and maintenance. Unlike a SCADA
system, an HMI only monitors local devices and generally doesn’t have a historian capability.
An operator can use a HMI system for operating the devices in the system or to verify the
current status of the system.
A HMI could run on a local computer substation, but a better solution would be to use a modern
gateway that supports a built-in HMI function. The HMI function on such a gateway would be
locally accessible via a touchscreen monitor directly connected to the gateway or
locally/remotely through a web connection. This approach eliminates the use of a substation
computer – resulting in less hardware and software maintenance considering that a computer
running on Windows OS needs regular patch management.
 Single-line diagram

The concept of the single-line diagram in a HMI system is the same as in a SCADA
system. A graphical representation of the system helps the operator to visually
investigate the current state of the substation and to send commands to the control.
A HMI has fewer single-line diagram pages as it only needs to represent its own
substation.
• Alarm management
Except for the fact that HMI alarm management only takes care of local alarms and
events, the rest of the functionality is similar to a SCADA system alarm management
system.
 System health information

Another function of a HMI system is to show some form of a summary on the general health of a
substation. Information such as the number of successful and failed communications, gateway CPU
and memory usage and the software version can be shown in a graphical form, so an operator can
evaluate the overall condition of the system at a glance.
Commissioning tools
Commissioning tools is a set of tools on a HMI system that offer an operator various functions that
can improve or speed up the process of testing and commissioning during a substation installation
or troubleshooting session.
Showing real-time value of the points received by a gateway, the ability to simulate some values
and other functions such as reading logs or events can provide better insight into the current status
of the system and potential faults that may occur during the operation.
 Substation automation system

In the smart grid, substations play a significant role in distributing

quality power to customers. The intelligence of substations
equipment has drawn expanding consideration in the smart grids.
Smart Substations are expensive and are challenging to keep up with
since they are dispersed in one unit. The functionality optimization
and device integration are significant points to be considered in the
advancement of a smart substation.
 Substation automation system

With the introduction of High speed, microprocessor-based

Remote Terminals Units (RTUs) or Intelligent Electronic
Devices (IEDs) are utilized for substation automation and
protection. IEC 61850, introduced in 2003, establishes
standard protocols for the communication and
interoperability of the equipment.

SAS is based on decentralized architecture and a bay-

oriented and distributed intelligence concept, for security and
availability reasons.
 SA Hierarchy
Levels
The International Electrotechnical Commission
(IEC) has published the IEC61850 standard,
which enhances interoperability between
substation equipment and enables the
abstraction of communications services. It
provides vertical and horizontal communication
between devices at three levels:
1. Station level
2. Bay level
3. Process level
 Station Level

Redundant PC-based HMI enables local station control

through the Micro SCADA Pro software package, which
includes a wide range of SCADA features.

The station level includes station-oriented functions that

cannot be implemented at the bay level . For example, an
alarm or event list related to the entire substation, a
gateway for communication with the remote-control
centers. A pledged master clock for the synchronization of
all entities shall be provided
 Bay level
Bay level comprises circuit breakers and isolators, earth
switches, and instrument transformers. At bay level, the
IEDs supply all bay level operations such as control
(command outputs), monitoring (status indications,
measured values), and protection. The IEDs connect
directly to the switchgear without the need for additional
interposing or transducers. Each bay control IED is
independent of the other IEDs and its functionality is
unaffected by failures that occur in other bay control
units of the station .
 Process level
The process level consists of all substation devices
that are routed with copper cables and connect bay-
level IEDs used for control and protection using
fiber optic cables
 Components of SA System
A microprocessor-based intelligent electronic device (IED) that provides inputs and
outputs to the system while performing primary control or processing services.
Typical IEDs are protection relays, load monitoring and/or operator indicator meters,
revenue meters, programmable logic controllers (PLCs), and power device controllers
such as circuit breakers and transformers

(ii) There may also be devices dedicated to specific functions of the SA system, such
as transducers, position sensors, and clusters of interposing relays, which may
additionally be present

(iii) A dedicated Ethernet switch that connects wired devices such as computers, WiFi
access points, PoE lights, and IoT devices to servers on an Ethernet LAN so that they
can communicate with one another and to the internet
 Components of SA System
(iv)There may also be a substation display or user’s station (local
HMI) connected to or part of the substation host computer (local
server)

(v) Common communication links to the outside world such as utility

operations centers, maintenance offices, and engineering centres. Most
SA systems are connected to SCADA (supervisory control and data
acquisition) system master stations that handle real-time requirements
for running utility networks from one or more Operations Centres.

Other utility users/services typically connect to the system through a

firewall-protected DMZ connected to the SCADA system.
Substation automation system components
 Monitoring Device &
Protection Device
Communication failure detector SF6 gas leakage
monitoring system The electronic harmonic analyzer

Microcomputer protection devices Current limiting

intelligent protector Intelligent circuit controller, etc.

Circuit breaker online monitoring Standard time system

Low voltage motor protection controller Smart
electricity meter etc.
FEEDER AUTOMATION
SYSYTEM(FAS)
• The demand for electric load in recent years has been growing
consistently.

• Besides supplying the load demand, the electricity service of

distribution systems has to be reliable to meet the power
quality of high-tech industry.

• For a fault contingency in distribution systems, the fault

location has to be identified and isolated by operating the
boundary line switches. Based on the situation, FAS plays an
important role to reach the demand of the power quality.
 Benefit of the FAS

FDCC (Feeder Distribution Control Centre) supervise and

control the FAS automatically.

It can provide the real-time information.

It will shorten up the fault time and human resource.

Operating the switch remotely.

Without interrupting the power supply to user, Close-Loop

FAS will isolate the fault zone automatically.
 FDIR in Open-Loop FAS
FDIR : Fault, Detection, Isolation and Restoration

Benefit : To increase the service reliability of distribution

systems, a comprehensive distribution automation system in FAS
is implemented by integrating the computer master station, the
communication system and the remote controlling equipments.

The master controlling station of FAS system to perform the

function of FDIR can accelerate the process of service
restoration for fault contingency.
 Benefits of feeder automation
A summary of benefits of feeder automation include: ·
• Early detection and correction of abnormal line conditions
• Reduced frequency and duration of service interruption
• Remote control and automatic restoration
• Improved dispatcher decision-making and field manpower savings
• Reduction of customer cost-of-outage
• Targeted regions or customers for improved reliability and operation
Power system protection and control is divided into two segments as shown in Figure 1,

unit protection and Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA).

The protection of individual equipment such as a line, bus, transformer, etc. is referred to as unit protection.

Unit protection responds fast to faults within the unit’s protection zone isolating the fault from the system from 0.01s to 0.1s or more.

Inability to clear the fault may precipitate a system instability condition that requires further action locally by the protection or remotely by

SCADA/Energy Management System (EMS).

Such situations have occurred that could not be controlled locally by protection or remotely by SCADA/EMS leading to an events requiring some

form of automatic recovery or quick interpretation of the data and corrective action by an alert system operator before an even greater outage

occurred.

Generally, there is insufficient time to analyse and prevent outages in the confusion of these fast-moving critical events.

Blackouts occur due to the lack of system awareness when responses are needed to be made within the gap period as shown in Figure 1. While

there are special schemes for unique applications, there is this critical gap in response times to system events existing in most power systems today
Wide-Area Monitoring and Analysis Systems that use Synchro phasor
measurements are undergoing a rapid development cycle to address a new wave of
industry requirements.

Why Synchro phasors?

Consider the ability to measure the voltage magnitude and phase angle at every
system bus and current magnitude and phase angle at every branch (lines,
transformers and other series elements) in the power system network
simultaneously and continuously and having them instantly available where we
need them when we need them.
 Wide Area Monitoring Systems

It is a collective technology to monitor power system dynamics in real time and also to
identify system stability related weakness and helps to design and implement counter
measures.
The WAMS technology helps in identifying the weak areas or in identified the major
disturbances and further, after that it can also take the corresponding control actions
online basics
WAMS is completely dependent on the global positioning system, satellite that is GPS
satellite. From this satellite the WAMS technology gets the reference clock signal the
reference time from signal.
 WAMS

The voltage current measures or any quantity we are going to measure physical the voltage
current we measure using this wide area monitoring system, they are the timestamp is very
very essential and that particular time stamp is universal.

That universe clock, the universal time is maintained using this GPS satellite that is our
global positioning satellite signal and the heart of this WAMS technology is are Phasor
Measurement Unit that is a PMU, we call it PMU
 Goals and Benefits

• Real time monitoring

• Post disturbance analysis
• Adaptive protection
• Power system restoration
The PMUs are installed in the transmission networks at different
substations, different critical points and from there voltage current signals
and those voltage current signals are sent to this data alignment or
concentration, where we will get the voltage current data from all the
PMUs which are installed at different buses, in the power network or in
our smart grid system and monitor by WAMS.
we can take some control actions through our operators.
A data centre where are we are receiving the data from the PMU .
control centre from where we can control different equipment's which
are just installed in inside our periphery of the power network or the
smart grid system.
And further from this control we will just decide some operation and
those commands will be sent to the network to take proper prevention or
to take proper control actions.
if you some loads are out of service so the current flowing through that
particular line power flowing through that may be less, that means, the
real time information or of power or voltage or current or frequency all
the information we are going to achieve from this WAMS technology; So,
using that we can further take some necessary actions. So, instead of
taking some offline data range or power information, current information
it is always to take decisions based on the present real time data
information, that is what is this provides this particular goal.
Now, the second one is to construct the consequence sequence of these
events after the disturbance has occurred. So, how to reconstruct
basically, if I have some black out, if I have some brown out, so how to
reconstruct the system after onwards; So, that is what the second goal and
through that it will be easier to understand the sequence of events using
this synchronized data from PMU. How this disturbance has occurred if I
have some recording online basis, if we can record the data from where
the disturbance has been originated and where it is ended. So, those data,
sequence is always we can record using this type of monitoring system.
And the third one is adapt protection or adaptive protection to be

appropriate with system condition, this adaptive protection means the

protection is always essential for the power system where 5 percent

of the total cost of the power system may dedicate for the protection of

the system. Without protection, so we cannot save our equipments or

lines or any a devises which are installed in the system.

what is adaptive protection?
It is a protection system which adapts, which takes decision according
to the changed system or change system parameters or changed
system quantities. If my voltage will vary a current will vary or any line
parameter varies or power will vary, then accordingly my protection
system will take certain decision which should be correct and
accurate.
So that is; what is adaptive protections scheme and that particular
adaptive protection scheme are possible using this WAMS technology.
If you could see this block diagram, our power structure, our lines two
lines which are carrying basically the power and this is our PMU which
is installed, as I said the PMU is the phasor measurement unit.
And this PMU is installed in this particular bus in this network and this PMU is sending the data may be the

voltage current information and frequency to the control centre to the controller. Then the controller will

inform to the relay to take some corrective measures and it will just open corresponding breaker where it is

desired, where it is required, that is what this PMU based adaptive protection schemes relay itself is a local

device and it takes the decision based on its own the algorithm.
If we will talk about the digital relays and why they again we are just adding this PMU information, as well as

the WAMS technologies concerned because to make this in relay more intelligent,

smarter, more information if you can provide globally. It is a local device; religious

looks takes care the voltage and current information at the bus were the relays

located. But if I can take the information from other buses with help of this PMU which

is the basically very good important component of this WAMS technology then that

particular information, those information those data will be really helpful for the relay

to takes some other necessary actions. That is what this adaptive protection scheme.
So, using this scheme we can make our system more smart and the fourth one is, the goal is to assist system
operator during the restoration with this PMU data, if suppose we have one smart grid system and we have 3, 4
micro grids which are connected to multi grid systems, multi micro grids are connected to multi grid systems. And
let us say due to some disturbances the micro grids are disconnected from the main grid. So, again we have to
restore the service, so that process is known as restoration of the service of this micro grid system or smart grid
system. So, in that case we can to restore the service, we can take the help of the PMU data that is what it is
mentioned here the system operator have more confidence during the restoration process.

Because the operator knows what is the status of this line, what is status of this particular slide breaker or bus
whatever the equipment we have all the information are basically with the operators. So, operator can easily take
the decision and reduce the chance of recurrence of system outage and also reduce the time needed for the
restoration. So,within very short period of time we can just restore the system and we can just, basically the power
is intact it is back to its original position, this is a small comparison between the SCADA system and the PMU.
The phasor measurement unit: inside this PMU we have a basically and a signal processing algorithm called

as DFT, Discrete Fourier Transform using that particular algorithm we can calculate the phasors of
different signals like voltage signal or current signals. Now, here it was a time synchronism is concerned, so
time frame ie synchronization is nil in case of SCADA.GPS will just provide a common reference clock or
universal clock signal to each PMU stations, the where the PMUs are installed So, the each PMU will receive a clock

signal to the from the GPS or satellite.

Now next point is the as per the total input output channels are concerned in case of SCADA we have
like 100 plus analogue and digital channels and here we have 10 phasors this is important. This phasors
means it includes both magnitude and as well as phase angle and also we have along with this we have 16
plus digital channels and 16 analog channels. And focus unit is the local monitoring and control;
however, here it is wide area monitoring control. The wide are monitoring means it will just control a very
large network, but here it is basically the local monitoring system.
Now, this is the third one is the communication channel, yes without this communication this
WAMS technology cannot stand. So, it is it is basically fully dependent on communication channel
where we use mostly the fiber optic, preferably this fibre optic cables are basically used for
communication purpose in case of WAMS technology.
Next is the visualization and analysis tool, this is of course, it is necessary because after getting the
data.So, we have to keep it in certain forms so that we can visualize what is happening in our
whole network and also for analysis purpose we have to analyze further how we can improve or we
can control the corresponding equipments which are present in the system. And also we have wide
area situation the system, this is very very important also because if beforehand we could guess
that my voltage is going to be collapsed after certain time so always we can takes some decision,
some prevention we can do always for that.
That is what the pre hand alarm system or some awareness system which is very very essential
nowadays and now the last one is wide area protection and control. As I said before, so the
protection is a very important, I mean the smart grid system, now our
system is going to be more complex due to the integration of renewable sources and also
due to the integration of batteries and near future also we are planning for integration of the electric
vehicles,.So, due to the integration of smart devices the network. So, the of course, system is going to
be more complex and the definitely our protection and control system is also going to be more
challenging. So, in that case this WAMS technology will help in adopting our protection and control
system according to the change condition of the network, this is the WAMS process.
Operational Non –operational

Real time and continuous stream of data from
PMU
This is not continuous mode of operation, if the data is not
coming continuous data. So, that is why it is periodically polled,
and it consist of records of multiple events like series of false or
power fluctuations or disturbances or lightning strikes. So, this is
basically the non-operational data mode and here the
examples like fault digital fault recorder, Digital Protective Relays
that is DPR, circuit breaker monitor. So, these are the devices
which provide basicallythis non-operational data in the smart
grids system.
 Synchronized phasor measurement

The components of SPM are:

• phasor measurement unit

• phasor data concentrator

• communication system.

This is how it looks like, synchronized phasor measurement system first at different buses of the power network mostly the PMUs are located,
placed optimally to save the cost. We do not like place the PMUs wherever we like, because that every bus we cannot put one PMU, we have to
put the PMUs optimally.

So, after placing this PMUs at the critical point where we will have just complete observability of the system, for complete control of this
voltage current frequency signal where we can measure the voltage current properly. So, after that the PMU data will reach to the data
concentrator and from there it will go to the super data concentrator. So, all the, basically this data concentrator maybe locally, so in
particular area of the system will just collect the data from all the PMUs which are located inside that particular area and again also we have
another area from where again we will just collect the data from all the PMUs to the next data concentrator. And from all the data concentrator
we will just send to the another level of data concentrator called as super data concentrator.
This is, let us say one bus in the power network where we have installed PMUs, PMU 2,
PMU 3 and from this two PMUs this data are flowing to the local PDC.
Because we have just kept dotted line, let us say we have more number of buses present in
this network and here also we have this GPS satellite. And due to this GPSsatellite all the
PMUs even including this local PDC are getting this clock signal,reference signal and it is
just reaching also this system PDC and all the PMU will just reach to the system PDC, right.
So, here the symbols like phases of these voltages of every bus like U 1, U 2, U 3. So,the
dynamic view of the voltage phasors in the real axis and also imaginary axis, we can
visualize at this using this computer station.
Energy management systems

An EMS monitors and manages flows in the higher-voltage transmission network.

• A distribution management system (DMS) monitors and manages flows in the lower-voltage distribution
network.
• Real-time monitoring of grid conditions. The first EMS application placed in control centers across the
country was known as the supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) system.
• Energy management is doing more with the same amount of energy or less energy. Energy management
saves money and makes buildings more comfortable, healthy, and safe.
• Energy Management Systems (EMS) was designed originally at a time when the electrical power industry
was vertically integrated and had centralised communications and computing systems.
• With deregulation of the power industry and the development of the Smart Grid, decision-making is
becoming decentralised, and coordination between different actors in various markets becomes important.
•System status and measurement information are collected by the Remote Terminal Units
(RTUs) and sent to the Control Centre through the communication infrastructure.
•The front-end server in the EMS is responsible for communicating with the RTUs and IEDs.
Different EMS Applications reside in different servers and are linked together by the Local
Area Network (LAN).
•EMS Applications include Unit Commitment, Automatic Generation Control (AGC), and
security assessment and control.
•However, an EMS also includes
•Applications similar to those of a DMS and most of the tools used in a DMS such as:
topological analysis, load forecasting, power flow analysis, and state estimation.
•The purpose of Unit Commitment within a traditional power system is to decide how many and which
generators should be used and to allocate the sequence of starting and shutting down generators.
•Similarly, in a power system, AGC carries out load frequency control and economic dispatch.
•Load frequency control has to achieve three primary objectives to maintain:
• (1) system frequency;
•(2) power interchanges with neighboring control areas; and
•(3) power allocation between generators at the economic optimum.
•AGC also performs functions such as reserve management (maintaining enough reserve in the system) and
monitoring/recording of system performance.
The security assessment and control Application includes; security monitoring, security analysis, preventive
control, emergency control, fault diagnosis and restorative control. The tools required include:
• Network topology analysis
• External system equivalent modeling
• State estimation
• On-line power flow
• Security monitoring (on-line identification of the actual operating condition – secure or insecure)
• Contingency analysis.
When the system is insecure, security analysis informs the operator which contingency is causing insecurity and
the nature and severity of the anticipated emergency
DISTRIBUTION MANAGEMENT SYSTEM (DMS)

A DMS is a collection of applications incorporated to monitor and control the whole distribution network

efficiently and reliably. It works as a decision support system to help the control room and field operating

engineers with the monitoring and control of the electric distribution system. It helps to enhance the reliability

and quality of service in terms of reducing outages. While minimizing outage time, it maintains acceptable

frequency and voltage levels. These are the key achievements of a DMS.

In order to support proper decision making activities, DMS shall have the following functions:
1.Network Connectivity Analysis (NCA)

Distribution network normally encompasses over a large area and serves power to different
customers at different voltage levels. So identifying required sources and loads on a larger
GIS/Operator interface is often very hard task. NCA does the necessary investigation and provides
display of the feed point of different network loads. The network is modelled depending upon the
condition of all the switching devices such as circuit breaker (CB), Ring Main Unit (RMU) and isolator.
 State Estimation (SE)

Power system state estimation is a method where data are telemetered from network measuring points to a central computer which

can be formed into a set of reliable data for control and recording purposes.

It permits the calculation of margins to operating limits, equipment health and necessary operator actions with ]high accuracy

despite of measurements that are corrupted by noise or could be missing or inaccurate.

In power networks, After that the prevailing network topology is determined. In addition to that the NCA further helps the

operator to know the operating state of the distribution network which indicates the loops and parallels in the network data from

the field and gives a model of what is actually happening. It is achieved by processing the data to indicate inaccurate readings

or to estimate missing data. In a distribution network, the data quality that is telemetered will be imperfect because of the

presence of noise. Problems in electronic devices and in the communications networks suggest that prior to conducting

an analysis, preprocessing of data is compulsory to eliminate the bad data points. This will help to resolve any non-telemetered

points and stabilize the telemetry systems.

Load Flow Applications (LFA)

Load flow study is an essential tool which involves application of numerical analysis to the power system.
The chief aim of power flow study is to obtain the details of voltage magnitude, phase angle, real power and
reactive information for each bus in the power system for specified load conditions. After getting this
information, real and reactive power flow on each branch as well as generator reactive power output can
also be found analytically.

Load flow is highly nonlinear problem with a lot of constraints. So numerical methods are applied to obtain
a solution which lies within acceptable tolerance. It uses customer type, profile of different loads and other
necessary information to correctly distribute the load to each individual distribution transformer. Load flow
or Power flow studies are significant for future planning and expansion of power systems as well as in
determining the optimal operation of existing systems.
 Volt/VAR Control (VVC)

Volt/VAR Control or VVC implies the process of balancing voltage levels and reactive power (VAR) throughout the

power distribution systems. In power system there will be always loads that has reactive components like capacitors and

inductors like AC electric motors. This will put additional stress on the grid. It is the reactive nature of the load which

will cause them to draw more current than what is actually required. The over drawn current will result in both over-

voltage and under-voltage violations. Besides that this will be leading to excessive heating up of equipment like

transformers, motors, and conductors. This will unnecessarily demand resizing of equipment to carry the total current.

The power system must be able to control reactive power by fixing the limits of reactive power production, absorption

and its flow at all levels in the system. A VVC application is very much helpful for the operator to soften such conditions

by suggesting required action plans

Load Shedding Application (LSA)
Power system is characterized by its long stretches of transmission line and injection points at multiple locations. This
complex structure of power system will lead to instabilities and critical failure or unpredicted system conditions. The
instabilities usually come into picture because of power system oscillations generated due to faults, peak deficit and
protection failures. Distribution load shedding and restoration schemes plays a significant role in control and emergency
operation in any utility. It not only reveals the emergency situation but also performs necessary predefined control actions,
like opening, closing of noncritical feeders. It determines the sources of injections and performs a tap control at transformer.
Generally distribution network is complex and has large area under its control. So, the emergency actions taken will reduce a
lot of burden of the distribution network. In a manually controlled system, operator’s awareness of system conditions is
extremely important. The operators must have the ability to respond to the changing situation. This will mitigate stress level
of the system. If the decisions are not fast enough, the problem will grow exponentially and will cause major catastrophic
failure. Automated load shedding and restoration application instructions will be given by DMS for any utility. These
instructions must cover various activities like Under Frequency Load Shedding, checking of limit violation and time of day
based load shedding schemes which are manually performed by the operator.
Fault Management & System Restoration (FMSR)
Reliability and quality of power supply are the deciding parameters which must be ensured by any utility. When the
outage time gets reduced, this will improve the overall reliability of any utility and increase the FMSR indices. FMSR
is well known for automated switching applications under fault condition which plays an important role in power
system stability and reliability. FMSR usually requires two important features. They are switching management and
suggested switching plan. The DMS application will receive information about faults from the SCADA system. It
processes the information for fault identification and running switching management application. The results are
converted to action plans by the applications. The action plan can be authenticated in study mode which is provided by
the functionality. The switching management can be either manual or automatic depending on the configuration.
Load Balancing Via Feeder Reconfiguration (LBFR)

Load balancing via feeder reconfiguration is an important application for utilities where they have multiple feeders feeding
a congested area. The operator rearranges the loads to other neighboring parts of the network in order to balance the loads
on a network. The Feeder Load Management (FLM) is required to permit the operator to manage energy delivery in the
electric distribution system and identify problem sensitive areas. The FLM observes the vital signs of the distribution
system and indicates areas of concern so that the distribution operator is warned in advance and can effectively focus his
attention where it is most needed. It permits for quicker correction of existing problems and makes possibilities for
problem avoidance. This will result in both improved reliability and excellent energy delivery.

Many times feeder reconfiguration is also used for loss minimization. Because of many network and operational
limitations utility network may be operated to its maximum capability without knowing its consequences of losses
occurring. The overall energy losses and losses in revenue due to these operations can be reduced for effective operation.
The DMS application utilizes switching management application for this very purpose. The loss minimization problem
Distribution Load Forecasting (DLF)
Distribution Load Forecasting (DLF) offers a structured interface for creating, managing and analyzing load forecasts.
It is designed to provide both top-down and bottom-up forecasting methodologies. These actions are carried out in the
same environment without giving any restrictions on the types of models available. It supports short-term, medium-
term, as well as, long-term forecasting. DLF provides data aggregation and forecasting capabilities that is created not
only to address today’s requirements but also to address future requirements. DLF has the capability to produce
repeatable and accurate forecasts.
VOLT/VAR CONTROL (VVC)
VVC governs the switching of distribution substation and feeder voltage regulation equipment and capacitor banks with
two important objectives. The first one is to reduce the VAR flow on the distribution system and the second one is to
maintain voltage at the customer delivery point within required limits. A productive VVC approach combines and
coordinates to optimize the control of both VAR flow and customer voltage. Components of VVC are as follows:

VAR Control, VAR Compensation, Power Factor Correction:

Substation and distribution feeder capacitor banks are utilized to reduce the VAR flow which will improve the power
factor on the distribution feeder during all load levels. The distribution system losses are reduced because of optimal
VAR flow. Ultimately, this reduces load losses on the substation and distribution feeders

Conservation Voltage Reduction (CVR)

CVR takes control of substation transformer LTCs (load tap changers) and distribution feeder voltage regulators to
minimize customer delivery voltage within specified and safe margins at the customer service point during peak periods
of load. This will result in the reduction of customer load and, in turn, result in load reduction on the substation and
distribution feeders. CVR may also be incorporated during base loading periods.
Integrated Volt/VAR Control (IVVC)

IVVC is the coordination of VAR flow and CVR to minimize distribution feeder losses and control the feeder voltage
profile. This will reduce system losses and may improve the quality of voltage supplied to the customer. Other
additional benefits may include frequency of capacitor bank maintenance is reduced and capacitor bank
troubleshooting is minimized. Volt/VAR Optimization (VVO)

VVO deals with the capability to optimize the objectives of VAR loss minimization and reduction in load with voltage
constraints by means of optimization algorithms and well-crafted control objectives subject to many system constraints
through centralized or decentralized decision makings. In the coming years, with the increase in distributed generation,
smaller plants that are placed nearer to the end customer will help to reduce electrical losses. At every level of the
transmission and distribution system electrical losses cannot be avoided due to the presence of electrical impedance
which includes both resistance and reactance of the equipment. So electrical losses occur starting from the step-up
transformers which are located at the power plants and the transmission and distribution grid down to the delivery
points where customer are connected. Generally VAR flow happens in the system due to current flowing through
inductive equipment on the system, such as transformers and transmission lines, and also by the nature of load. To
reduce the VAR flow in the system, capacitance in the form of capacitor banks are connected to the system.
 Volt/VAR Optimization and The Smart Grid

VVO enables distribution organizations to operate their systems, as new complexities are introduced. These complexities

include increase in renewable generation placed at distribution voltage levels. Smart grid initiatives are now facilitating the

ways to share data among enterprise applications. For example, voltage readings of customer revenue meters from AMI

systems will be shared with a centralized master VVC. This will benefit the customer by monitoring the lowest customer

service point voltages and make sure that the voltage profile from the substation to the customer is as stable as possible.

With the presence of distributed energy sources (DER) and the incorporation of consumer demand management, the

combination of VVO with the control and optimization of these resources in the distribution system is becoming a new

challenge in smart grid. The very fast growth of renewable generation and energy storage system in the future years with smart

grids will introduce huge challenges. But it will also provide opportunities for VVO in a greater extent. Nondispatchable

distributed renewable energy resources like PV and wind are discontinuous and unpredictable in operation. The likelihood of
FAULT DETECTION, ISOLATION, AND SERVICE RESTORATION

Fault Detection Identification and Restoration (FDIR) is one of the important technologies whose aim is to identify

the fault occurrence, record the occurrence, and determine the fault location. Finally it helps in the restoration

process. It is a integration of advanced DMS & OMS systems, as well as a close combination of feeder level assets

with the DMS. FDIR systems will also use automated switching like reclosers, sectionalizers and switches. This

will help to reduce the number of customers affected by a fault. The FDIR system is tightly connected with the

DMS so that measured values from the shunt capacitors, reclosers, and sectionalizers are available to find the

location of the fault. In addition to that, automatic operation of switches, reclosers, and sectionalizers is made

possible which further reduces the time length of the outage. The result is that the system operates with reclosers

and sectionalizers in the face of fault occurrence and the time required to identify and locate the fault is reduced by

30%.
From the analysis of FDIR the following conclusions and observations can be made:

1. The chief benefit of the incorporated FDIR is power system reliability increases. The

peak load or annual energy consumption is not affected.

2. When the FDIR is coordinated with reclosers, sectionalizers, DMS and OMS,

it becomes one of the most fruitful ways to increase the reliability of a distribution

feeder.

3. Only when the power system is having low reliability, coordination of FDIR is

mandatory.
Generally, two technology components are needed to provide FDIR capabilities. These are fiel
devices and algorithms. Field devices have sensors and switches. The sensors search for issues o
the network, while switches are utilized to control the power flow in the network. Algorithms ar
the mathematical tools that guide the switching operations when isolating equipment on th
network. Switching operations proposed by software algorithms must be applied by an automati
system or human operator. Figure 2.26 shows a typical 11 kV distribution network. When there
a fault on the network at the location shown, the over-current protection element in IED1 locate
the fault and opens CB1.This opening action will bring an outage at loads L1 to L5. Since ther
are no automated operations of components in the network, this demands human intervention fo
supply restoration. Supply restoration is normally started by receiving phone calls from affecte
customers in the area where outage has occurred. Now, the electricity supplier is reported abou
the loss of power supply to the customer
After receiving these calls, a restoration crew is dispatched to the area. But it will take more time for the crew to locate the

fault and manually isolate it by opening SD3 and SD4. Now CB1 is closed to restore the supply to L1, L2 and L3. The

normally open point (NOP) is closed to restore the supply to L5. Load L4 will not have supply until the fault is cleared.

A larger degree of automation may be introduced by making use of reclosers with RTUs, with communication

infrastructure between them as shown in the figure 2.27. In this scheme, an agent is brought into picture who gathers data

from all the intelligent devices in the system. During normal operation, the Agent surveys all the RTUs and IEDs to

stabilize the system status. When there is a fault at the location shown, IED1 senses the fault current, opens the CB and

give information to the Agent. The Agent, in turn sends instructions to RTU1 to RTU4 (i.e., remote terminal units

extending till NOP) to open them and requests current and voltage data from them in real time.
 A possible automatic restoration method works as follows:

1. A command is sent to IED1 to close CB1.

2. Next level command is sent to RTU1 to reclose R1. If the fault current exceeds, a trip

is initiated but as there is no fault current, R1 remains closed. Similarly a set of

commands sent to RTU2, 3 and 4 to reclose R2,R3 and R4. When R3 is closed, fault

current flows, thus causing R3 to trip and lock-out.

3. Then a command is sent to RTU9 to close the normally open point.

4. Finally, a command is sent to RTU4 to close R4. As the fault current flows, a trip

command is initiated for R4. R3 and R4 thus isolate the fault and supply is restored to
loads L1, L2, L3 and L5.
 OUTAGE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM (OMS)
Conventional outage happens because of bad weather and heat, excavations, defects in the power station, power lines damages and defects in the distribution
system. Other reasons for outage may include a short circuit in the line, the overloading of electricity mains, equipment failures, or vehicles hitting utility
poles. The solution to manage power outages effectively depends upon implementing outage management system (OMS) or upgrading the existing system.

Recent computer-based OMS makes use of connectivity models and graphical user interfaces. This includes operations like trouble call handling, outage analysis
and prediction, working crew management, and reliability reporting. The distribution system connectivity helps operators with the outage management system
which will result in inclusion of partial restorations and detection of nested outages. Outage management was originally dependent on receiving calls from
customers and did not have a connectivity model of the system which includes the connection points of all customers In the past, manual data recording and the
use of paper maps were very common to estimate the location of outages. With the invention of modern OMS, system connectivity information is usually stored in
the GIS (Geographic Information System). A typical OMS is shown in the figure 2.27. Network data from GIS are given to the OMS database by means of a network
data interface. This interface gets data from GIS and designs a data model conversion which depends upon business rules and data model mapping. The interface
first generates the database with all network data. This will include connectivity information, system components, protection and switching device types and their
locations, and information about distribution transformers. This is called as the bulk network data load or bulk load. The interface will be periodically run to
exchange the subset of data that has changed since the last update. This process is called as the incremental network data update or incremental update. Outage
Management Systems are usually integrated with SCADA systems which will automatically report the monitoring of circuit breakers operation. In recent years,
mobile data system is just another system that is usually integrated with an outage management system. This integration enhances the ability for outage
predictions and it sends information to working crews in the field automatically for necessary actions. This will reduce estimated restoration times without
demanding radio communication with the control center.
OMS Benefits
The OMS benefits can be listed as below:

1. Outage duration is reduced due to faster restoration based upon outage location

predictions.

2. Reduced outage duration minimizes due to prioritizing of outage clearing

3. Customer satisfaction is improved due to increase in awareness of outage restoration

progress to the customers

4. Media relations is improved by providing accurate outage and restoration information.

5. Number of complaints is reduced due to ability to prioritize restoration of emergency

facilities and other critical customers

6. Frequent occurring of outage is reduced due to efficient outage management

 PLUG-IN HYBRID ELECTRIC VEHICLES (PHEV)
One of the serious challenges this world is facing is environmental concern regarding the consumption of fossil fuels.
Consequently, consumption of more renewable resources and promotion of a clean transport system such as the use of Plug in
Hybrid Electric Vehicles (PHEVs) has become the forefront of the new energy policies. However, the invention of PHEVs in the
automobile industries raises concerns about power system stability in the network. The typical representation of PHEV is shown
in the figure 2.34. A series of PHEV studies in UK with respect to the aggregate load profile of PHEVs energy consumption
resulted in different price scenarios. The results indicate that under the fixed rate and time of use in the current grid, the
extra load of the PHEV increases the consumption profile and also generates new critical points. So, excess standby
capacity becomes mandatory to satisfy the peak demand even for a short period of time. Alternatively, when the consumers
do not pay the price depending on the true cost of supply, then those who utilize less in peak hours will subsidize the ones who
utilize more. This is a critical point in the use of PHEV with respect to regulatory issues. However, a smart grid can cope up
with PHEVs without raising technical and regulatory problems. This positive consequence is the outcome of demand response
to the real time pricing. When analyzed with respect to technical issues, PHEVs load can be shifted to the late evening and the
hours of minimum demand. When welfare analysis is considered, real time pricing generates no deadweight losses. Because of
this the demand response will limit the spot market clearing price.
Vehicle-To-Grid Technology (V2G)
Because of smart grid, the Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G) concept has become reality. The V2G incorporation permits PHEVs
to act as resources to the grid. There are several potential applications for V2G technology. During peak hours if the
demand for power in the grid exceeds the supply, then PHEVs will be able to supply peak power. There are also many
applications in which the vehicles help to balance the power in feed prediction error of renewable energy generators.
Even PHEVs sometimes provide ancillary services to the power grid in order to stabilize the network.
Merits of Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicle
The following are considered as the advantages of PHEV:

1. The fuel consumption is reduced from 30% to 60%, reduces fuel consumption.

2. Due to the application of battery and charging abilities of PHEV, greenhouse

gases produced by the vehicle are minimized.

3. Since battery is largely used for the movement of the vehicle, fuel consumption cost is

reduced. Even though initial cost of buying is relatively higher, in the long run

compared to regular cars PHEV is economical

4. PHEV has several energy generators and motors which are smaller in size and

lesser in weight. Therefore this reduces fuel consumption without interfering with the

performance of the vehicle.