CHAPTER 1

BASIC CONSEPT

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 1. SCOPE OF THERMODYNAMICS

Encyclopedia Britannica:
Thermodynamics in Engineering:
Thermodynamics is a science of the relationship between heat, work,
temperature, and energy.
Thermodynamics deals with the transfer of energy from one place to
another and from one form to another.

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Chemical thermodynamics is the study of the
interrelation of heat and work with chemical
reactions or with physical changes of state within
the confines of the laws of thermodynamics.

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• 0th Law of Thermodynamics - If two systems are both in thermal
equilibrium with a third system, then they are in thermal
equilibrium with each other.
• 1st Law of Thermodynamics - Energy cannot be created or
destroyed.
The energy gained (or lost) by a system is equal to the energy
lost (or gained) by its surroundings.
• 2nd Law of Thermodynamics - For a spontaneous process, the
entropy of the universe increases.
Natural processes tend to go only one way, toward less usable
energy and more disorder.
• 3rd Law of Thermodynamics - A perfect crystal at zero Kelvin has
zero entropy.
A system's entropy approaches a constant value as its
temperature approaches absolute zero.
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 FORMS OF ENERGY

STORED ENERGY ENERGY IN TRANSIT

Kinetic Energy (EK) Heat (Q)

Potential Energy (EP) Work (W)

Internal Energy (U)

Chemical Energy
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2. INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF UNIT

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 3. TEMPERATURE

 Temperature is a measure of the warmth

or coldness of an object or substance with
reference to some standard value.

 The first thermometer was constructed by

Sanctorius, Galilei, or Sagredo.

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 RELATIVE TEMPERATURE SCALE

FAHRENHEIT CELCIUS
(1724) 1742

MP of water = 32F MP of water = 0C

BP of water = 212F BP of water = 100C
9 5
tF  t C  32 t C  tF  32
5 9
[°R] = [°F] + 459.69 [K] = [°C] + 273.15
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 4. PRESSURE

Pressure is the force applied

perpendicular to the surface of an
object per unit area over which
that force is distributed. F Fn

∆ 𝐹𝑛
𝑃= lim A
∆ 𝐴→0 ∆ 𝐴

F
P
A

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Static pressure of liquid
P0
Static pressure is the amount of pressure
exerted by a fluid that is not moving.

𝑊 𝒎𝒈 𝝆 𝑽𝒈 𝜌 𝐴h 𝒈
𝑃= = = = =𝜌 𝑔h A
𝐴 𝑨 𝑨 𝐴 h
(cross sectional area)

The total pressure at the bottom of the

liquid:

𝑃= 𝑃 0 + 𝜌 𝑔h
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11
PRESSURE OF GAS IN CYLINDER

F mg
P 
A A
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 PV DIAGRAM

Experiment at constant temperature

......

P1 P2 Pn
V1 V2 Vn
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Run P V
1 P1 V1
2 P2 V2
3 P3 V3
… … …
… … …
n Pn Vn

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 P1 •

TL < T < T H
P2 •

P3 •
P
P4 •

TL TH
Pn •T

V4
V1 Vn
V3 V
V2
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 5. WORK (W)

Definition: 𝑑𝑊 =𝐹 𝑑𝑙 (1.1)
F

The force inserted by the piston on

the fluid inside the cylinder:

F = PA
dl

Movement of the piston:

𝑑𝑉
𝑑𝑙=
𝐴 16
 𝑑𝑊 =𝑃 𝑑𝑉 (1.2)

Work is done to the gas when pressure acts on a surface and

displaces a volume of fluid  dW is positive
However, the volume of the gas inside the cylinder decreases
dV is negative.

𝑑𝑊 =− 𝑃𝑑𝑉 (1.3)

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 𝑑𝑊 =− 𝑃 𝑑𝑉
n This is the shaded area below the curve, with
Pn
width - dVt and height P1 and P2.

P
𝑊 =− 𝑃 ( 𝑉 2 −𝑉 1 )=𝑃 ( 𝑉 1 − 𝑉 2 )

𝑊 = ( 𝑃1+ 𝑃2
2 ) (𝑉 1 −𝑉 2 )

P2 2
(area of the shaded trapezium)
P1 1

V2 V1
V
dV 18
 Pn If the process starts at P1 and ends at
Pn, the total work is the sum of the area
of all small segments.

P 𝑉𝑛
𝑡

𝑊 =− ∫ 𝑃𝑑𝑉 (1.4)
𝑉 𝑡1

P1

Vtn Vt1 Vt

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 2
P2 𝑑𝑊 =− 𝑃 𝑑𝑉
𝑡
𝑉2

𝑊 =−∫ 𝑃𝑑 𝑉
P 𝑉 𝑡1

P1 1

dV
V
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 6. ENERGY (E)
Kinetic Energy

When a body of mass m, acted upon by a force F, is displaced a

distance dl during a differential interval of time dt, the work done is

𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑙
𝑑𝑊 =𝐹 𝑑𝑙=𝑚𝑎 𝑑𝑙=𝑚 𝑑𝑙=𝑚 𝑑 𝑢=𝑚𝑢 𝑑𝑢
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

( )( ) (
𝑢2

)
2 2 2 2
𝑢2 𝑢1 𝑚 𝑢 2 𝑚 𝑢1 𝑚𝑢
2
𝑊 =𝑚 ∫ 𝑢 𝑑𝑢=𝑚 − = − =∆
𝑢 1
2 2 2 2 2

1 2
𝐸𝐾 = 𝑚 𝑢 𝑾 =∆ 𝑬 𝑲
2
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Potential Energy

When a body of mass m is raised from an initial elevation z1 to a

final elevation z2, an upward force at least equal to the weight of
the body is exerted on it, and this force moves through the
distance z2 − z1.

𝑊 = 𝐹 ( 𝑧 2 − 𝑧 1 ) =𝑚𝑔 ( 𝑧 2 − 𝑧 1 )

𝑊 =𝑚𝑔 ∆ 𝑧=∆ 𝑚𝑔𝑧

𝐸 𝑃 =𝑚𝑔𝑧
𝑾 =∆ 𝑬 𝑷
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Energy Conservation

An elevated body, allowed to fall freely (i.e., without friction or other

resistance), gains in kinetic energy what it loses in potential energy.

∆ 𝐸 𝐾 + ∆ 𝐸 𝑃 =0

2 2
𝑚𝑢 2 𝑚𝑢 1
− +𝑚𝑔 𝑧 2 −𝑚𝑔 𝑧 1 =0
2 2

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Example
An object with a mass of 10 kg falls from a height of 10 m from the
ground. What is the speed of the object when it reaches the ground?

Solution
Energy conservation
z1 = 10 m
2 2
u1 = 0 𝑚𝑢 2 𝑚𝑢 1
− +𝑚𝑔 𝑧 2 −𝑚𝑔 𝑧 1 =0
2 2

z2 = 0 m 2
𝑢2 𝑢1
2
− +𝑔 𝑧 2 − 𝑔 𝑧 1= 0
u2 2 2

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1 2
2
( 𝑢 2 − 0 ) + 9 ,78 m ∙ s ) ( 0 m −10 m ) =0
( −2

1 2 2 −2
𝑢2 =97 , 8 m ∙ s
2

−1
𝑢2 =14 , 0 m ∙ s

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 7. HEAT - Q

A B A B
A B

Heat

Heat, Q, is thermal energy transferred from a hotter

system to a cooler system that are in contact.
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 Zeroth Law OF Thermodynamics
(Thermal Equilibrium)

(Senin, 12-02-2024)

If A and C are in thermal equilibrium with B, then A is in thermal

equilibrium with C.
It means that the three systems are in the same temperature,
and it forms the basis for comparison of temperatures.
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 8. THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEM

weight

Piston A thermodynamic system

is a group of material
Boundary and/or radiative contents.
Cylinder Compressed gas

surrounding
surrounding

surrounding
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 SYSTEM

OPEN CLOSED ISOLATED

OPEN CLOSED ISOLATED

Mass transfer  x x
Energy transfer   x

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 SYSTEM

HOMOGEN HETEROGEN

 Coffee drink  Water + ice

 Air
(single phase) (multiple phase)

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Phase is a quantity of matter that
o has homogeneous composition,
o can be distinguished physically from another phase, and
o can be separated mechanically from a nonhomogeneous
mixture

Example of single-phase system ( = 1):

o Water
o Air (N2, O2, Ar, CO2)

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Example of two-phase system: ice in water 33
 AMOUNT AND SIZE

Mass Number of mole Total volume

(m) (n) (Vt)

m
n
M

(Kamis, 15-02-2024)
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 9. PROPERTY AND STATE

Property is an entity to describe a system in equilibrium.

The property commonly used are T, P, V, U, H, S, n, m, u, and
position.

Extensive property:
mass, total volume, length, and total charge.

Intensive property :
Temperature, pressure, molar or specific volume, color,
hardness, melting point, boiling point, molecular weight.

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• State of a system is the condition of the system as
represented by its properties with respective values.

• For a homogeneous pure substance (single phase), fixing two

of these properties automatically fixes all the others, and thus
determines its thermodynamic state.

• For example, nitrogen gas at a temperature of 300K and a

pressure of 1 bar a fixed molar volume and a fixed molar
internal energy (V = 24.938 L/mole).

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 T2 = 600 K V2 = 49.90 L/mole
P2 = 1 bar

Isobaric heating Isobaric cooling

T1 = 300 K T4 = 300 K
P1 = 1 bar P4 = 1 bar
V1 = 24.938 L/mole V4 = 24.938 L/mole

Isothermal compression Isothermal expansion

T3 = 300 K V3 = 6.231 L/mole

P3 = 3 bar
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• If this gas is heated or cooled, compressed or expanded, and then
returned to its initial temperature and pressure, its intensive
properties are restored to their initial values.

• Such properties do not depend on the past history of the

substance nor on the means by which it reaches a given state.

• They depend only on present conditions, however reached.

• Such quantities are known as state function.
• A state function, such as specific internal energy, is a property
that always has a value; it can therefore be expressed
mathematically as a function of coordinates such as temperature
and pressure, or temperature and density, and its values can be
identified with points on a graph.

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On the other hand, the terms on the right sides of Eqs. (2.3)
through (2.6), representing heat and work quantities, are not
properties; they account for the energy changes that occur in the
surroundings.
They depend on the nature of the process, and they may be
associated with areas rather than points on a graph, as suggested
by Fig. 1.3.
Although time is not a thermodynamic coordinate, the passage of
time is inevitable whenever heat is transferred or work is
accomplished.

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 10. EQUILIBRIUM

Equilibrium is a static condition.

In thermodynamics it means not only the absence of change but
the absence of any tendency toward change on a macroscopic
scale.
A system is in equilibrium when its properties (T and P) are
constant.

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When the temperature of
the system boundary
changes, the molecules
within the system will T2
T1
spontaneously
redistribute until all part of
the system has the same P
temperature. (T1) (T2)
1 2
When a system changes P1 = P2  

from one equilibrium to

another, the path of the process
system is called the
process.
V1 V2 V
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 11. Reversible Process

A process is reversible when its direction can be reversed at any

point by an infinitesimal change in external conditions

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Resume
A reversible process:
• Frictionless;
• The change from equilibrium is infinitesimal;
• Through a series of equilibrium;
• Caused by an infinitesimal force imbalance;
• Its direction can be reverted at any point by an infinitesimal
external change/imbalance.
• When the direction is reverted, the process will follow the
same path and reach the initial condition of the system and
the surrounding.
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